Gender as Socially Constructed Roles - Essay Example

Topic: Lecturer: Presentation: Introduction World Health Organization defines gender as “socially constructed roles, behaviour, activities and attributes that are considered appropriate for men and women”. Masculinity or feminity shows the power relationship between males and females and informs how men and women respond to hostilities. Men’s aggressiveness is seen as the norm and rational while women are regarded as irrational. Theory of gender as social construct reinforces the norm and shows how culture interprets biological differences. It is gender that defines the roles played by men and women or division of labour and structures paid or productive labour and unpaid or reproductive labour (Fraster, 1997). On the other hand, feminist economists are concerned with improving well-being of women and the underprivileged and empowering them through ensuring equitable distribution of wealth and income and individual needs and entitlements (Elson, 2002). It is gender roles that give rise to cultural and economic injustices the feminist economists fight to remedy. This paper is a critique of the role of feminist economists and gender theorists in enhancing understanding of issues related to production and reproduction. Issues Related to Production and Reproduction Issues related to production and reproduction arises due to social inequalities between males and females as a result of social constructs of gender. The society socializes people from childhood on their sexes and roles they are supposed to undertake. Men are socialized into masculine jobs and leading roles as head of families hence they take up governing and public roles while women are considered as homemakers and care givers which are feminine jobs thus roles are given depending on attributes (Epstein, 2006). Deviation from the norm is considered as uncultured. This culture hence determines the kind of jobs undertaken by both genders resulting to a lot of controversy as feminist economists are against such norms that depict a woman as a lesser being and has no equal right as a man. They suffer socio-economic injustice as they engage in reproductive work while men are in productive work (Fraser, 1997). Women are involved in reproduction as they take care of children, aged, and ill health so that they become productive members of the society or economy. Feminist economists claim that women’s work is not included in economic statistics as it is considered invisible and its unpaid work such as house work, child care, taking care of the ill and elderly among others. Macroeconomic policies which are favoured by neo-liberal economists only account for productive work and hence deflationary policies that involve public expenditure cut affect the women jobs. According to Elson (2002), everybody has a right to work and free choice of employment but neo-liberal economic theory does not consider unpaid care work as work hence create disabling environment for women’s enjoyment of human rights. Feminists thus advocate for more participation of women in labour market and in productive work but gender theorists would argue that the nature of women dictated by gender differences is to blame for the inequality and denial of this important human right. Folbre (2000) argues that the care work performed by women needs high skills and is in high demand but despite that, policy makers consider them unskilled and that it’s a natural duty hence doesn’t deserve high pay. Feminists argue that there is need to recognize care as love-centred and work as money-centred and hence neo-liberal economists to formulate policies that support both dimensions. Power imbalance between men and women is a result of gender cultural constructs. Power creates gender inequalities as men are considered as more powerful than women hence control the resources. Women are denied land and property rights which would give them power to develop themselves and gain freedom. According to Sen (2003), justice requires people to have equal capabilities to function. These capabilities include; access to clean water, education, health facilities, paid work and freedom from torture and rape. Denial of these capabilities limits women’s power and hence they are subjected to rape, assault, and domestic violence among others. Feminist economists blame the state for not safeguarding their rights and ensuring equitable distribution of resources. Neo-liberal economists favour cutting government expenditure to ensure price stability. This affects poverty reduction strategies and denies women capabilities to achieve their goals hence remain impoverished (Staveren, 2008). They also reinforce men bias as their jobs are not affected. Feminist economists advocate for gender mainstreaming in macroeconomic policies for sustainable growth and poverty reduction. Neo-liberal economic environment for realization of human rights was to reduce state role and liberalization so as to achieve economic efficiency and faster economic growth (Elson, 2002). This in turn opened doors for international trade and labour migration. Most migrants are women who look for favourable conditions outside home or income to sustain their families since they are entrusted with caring for their families. These women leave their children behind and appoint someone to take care of them. The caring nature of women makes them eager to communicate with their families. Parrenas (2005) observes that most mothers maintain intimacy with their children over long distances by communicating to them through use of phones, internet and letters. Most migrants are care givers such as nurses and care for the elderly but international migration depends on a countries policies and cultural differences (Beneria, 2008). Migrants from global south are absorbed in low-paid service sectors and are marginalized in public discourse and policies. The developed countries restrict permanent migration hence reduced rights for immigrants and illegal migrations (Elson, 2002). For feminist economists, the government should protect all its citizens by offering equal opportunities and this would minimize migration. Less deflationary macroeconomic policies are thus required and social protection systems put in place for the disadvantaged and not gender biased. All humans have a right to rest and leisure, limited working hours and holidays (Elson, 2002). Deflationary policies lead to loss of jobs for women in service and social provision sectors making them to engage in more reproductive work or domestic work which involves working more hours. Feminist economists claim that women should be absorbed in other sectors of the economy just like their male counterparts as they have a right to paid work and equal pay as the males. However, Tronto (2002) notes that these feminists after getting paid jobs employ nannies to look after their children as they go to work. Their pursuit for social justice is thus compromised as they are responsible for the problem. Feminist also manage to advance careers for women and move beyond boundaries of traditional gender roles but they are constrained by time, gender and work ideologies (Epstein, 2006). Gender theorists would argue that division of labour is determines rationally by attributes. Hardt (1999) also argues that affective labour affects mode of production as it affects attitudes and character. Working mothers suffer from social disapproval and their leisure time is constrained by the fact that they have to carry out caring role at home. Men’s job demand more time hence no leisure time or time for family. Conclusion Gender roles or division of labour determines structures political, social and economic aspects of individuals or political economy. They are the foundation of all social inequalities that the feminist economists pursue to eliminate. To achieve equality of sexes gender roles need to be abolished but they are social constructs hence cannot be abolished. Gender theorists and feminist economists need to work together to find a solution to the social and economic injustices. As women achieve success they are constrained by cultural boundaries. The political economy should provide an enabling environment for realization of human rights and endow women with capabilities so as to enhance their standard of living and attain their rights. References Beneria, L. (2008) “The Crisis of Care, International Migration, and Public Policy”. Feminist Economics, 14 (3): 1-21. Elson, D. (2002) Gender Justice, Human Rights and Neo-Liberal Policies, in M. Molyneux and S. Razavi, Gender Justice, Development and Rights, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Epstein, C. (2006) ‘Border Crossings: The Constraints of Time Norms in Transgressions of Gender and Professional Roles’, in Epstein, C and Kalleberg, A. (eds), Fighting for Time. Shifting boundaries of work and social Life, New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Folbre, N. and Nelson, J. (2000) ‘For Love or Money – or Both?’. Journal of Economic Perspectives 14 (4):123-140. Fraser, N. (1997) Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the "Postsocialist" Condition. London: Routledge. Hardt, M. (1999) “Affective Labor”. Boundary 2, 26 (2):89-100. Parreñas, R. (2005) Long Distance Intimacy: Class, Gender and Intergenerational Relations between Mothers and Children in Filipino Transnational Families. Global Networks. A Journal of Transnational Affairs 5 (4):317-333 Sen, A. (2003) “Continuing the Conversation”. Feminist Economics, 9(2– 3): 319 – 332. Staveren, van I. (2008) “The Gender Bias of The Poverty Reduction Strategy Framework”. Review of International Political Economy, 15 (2): 289-313. Tronto, J (2002) The “Nanny” Question in Feminism, Hypatia 17 (2):34-51. World Health Organization. (2010).”Gender”. Retrieved 20 May, 2010 from http://www.who.int/topics/gender/en/ . . Read More