Genocide and Gender - Essay Example

Genocide and Gender The effects of the two World Wars had a destructive influence on mankind and the international community in general. Under dictatorship and war, human values have become lost allowing human rights to be violated. The suffering inflicted on the causalities of the warfare by their fellow human beings becomes obvious. One look at the twentieth century shows the horrible experiences that technology made possible. Genocide is not a new concept. History shows numerous accounts of genocide before the twentieth century. Due to the technological advances, genocide has become more advanced in the twentieth century. Hopefully the documentation of this crime against humanity can lead to an end toward annihilation of a population based on race. Gender has always been a factor when genocide is perpetrated. Every incident of genocide is different, but gender normally determines the treatment of the individual of the race that is being exterminated. This essay wants to show the importance of gender when looking at the legal definition of genocide. The genocide events that occurred during the twentieth century will show how gender was a part of all these incidents. More people have been systematically killed in the twentieth century than any other century throughout history. Genocide has been the twentieth century’s most heinous crime against humanity. This atrocity has been perpetrated throughout the history of mankind. However, the twentieth century witnessed genocide on a grander scale than seen in previous centuries. Helen Fein thinks: Genocide in this century is virtually always a state crime…Dr. Slobodan Lang of the Helsinki Watch committee in Zagreb, observed that genocide has become the most successful crime of this century. (“Denying Genocide: From Armenia to Bosnia”) Another source states: Human tragedies such as military conflicts, massacres, and rape have been witnessed in different countries across the globe. This is evident from the following statement: Countless millions of men, women, and children have been slaughtered by their fellow human beings throughout history, yet there is persuasive evidence that the present century is the most murderous of all. (Kopf and Markusen 2) Genocide is a catastrophe in the eyes of all mankind. However different opinions abound on genocide. In 1944, the term genocide was spread widely with the help of the Polish jurist Raphael Lemkin. Lemkin (1944) states that there was a need for an international law and the idea of master race must change. Lemkin’s opinions on genocide were confirmed by his observation of the Nazis who committed massacres against the Jews. He mentioned the idea of master race referring to what the Nazis believed themselves to be. Lemkin defined genocide as the coordinated and planned annihilation of a national, religious, or racial group by a variety of actions aimed at undermining the foundations essential to the survival of the group as a group (1944). Lempkin’s definition of genocide does not necessarily address the issue of gender. Lempkin’s definition helped the United Nation to conclude the need to create an official definition. Genocide was defined by the United Nations in 1948 as: Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part. A national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such: a) Killing members of the group. b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group. c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part. d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group. e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. (“Genocide”) The United Nations’ definition of genocide could be interpreted in a way which relates to gender. The term “imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group” is directly targeting women (“Genocide”). There is more to the destruction of a race of people other than the physical part. Lempkin did not mention the mental effects of genocide. For instance, although the United Nations did mention ‘mental harm’, their term is too broad. These opinions do not specifically identify the psychological or the mental effects on the victims. Survivors of genocide, whether they survived the killing camps of the Nazis or rape in the Balkans, are emotionally scarred for life. The sociologist Irving Louis Horowitz gave another definition of genocide. He defined it as “A structural and systematic destruction of innocent people by a state bureaucratic apparatus.” (Horowitz). Horowitz is talking about the act of killing of innocent people. Horowitz also fails to clarify whether he means the physical, psychological, or mental destruction when asserting ‘destruction of innocent people’ (Horwitz). Helen Fein describes genocide as: Genocide is sustained purposeful action by a perpetrator to physically destroy a collectivity directly or indirectly, through interdiction of the biological and social reproduction of group members, sustained regardless of the surrender or lack of threat offered by the victim. (Fein “Genocide” 49) Fein adds another dimension to genocide because she has mentioned the ‘interdiction of the biological and social reproduction of group members and the lack of threat offered by the victims’ by acknowledging birth control or rape to define genocide. Her definition shows that gender can play a part in genocide, depending on sterilization or forcible impregnation of the race being annihilated. In addition to these definitions, Frank Chalk defines genocide as “a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group or membership in it are defined by the perpetrator” (Chalk 52). Again, this definition lacks in comprehensiveness. Chalk talks about one aspect of genocide which is mass killing, ignoring the other components of genocide. His opinion also does not mention gender. As one can see, there seems to be a problem concerning what the meaning of genocide really is. According to Horowitz, the definition by the United Nations is very broad. Others argue that this definition is too narrow. Israel Charny claims: Mass killing on an enormous scale, can fail to qualify as genocide under the present definition if the victims are either a heterogeneous group or native citizens of the country that is destroying them. How absurd and ugly. (71) Charny has a point in saying the United Nations’ definition of genocide does not include other aspects of crimes which can be labelled as genocide. To find a solution for this problem, other people have tried to redefine genocide. Charney defines genocide by saying: Genocide in the generic sense is the mass killing of substantial number of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims. (71) Most opinions are concentrating on one aspect of genocide which is mass killing. Charny’s definition is not a complete or convincing one because it does not label crimes such as rape or sterilization under genocide. Since only focusing on the mass killing, Charny also fails to address the gender factor of genocide. Helen Fein also weighs in on the UN definition. She thinks that there is more than one problem with the UN definition. Fein states: There has been much criticism about the convention’s definition because (1) the exclusion of political groups and social classes as victims and (2) the ambiguity of intent to destroy…a group, as such. (“Denying Genocide: From Armenia to Bosnia.”) It is arguable that the problem with the United Nations’ definition is that it is not clear what it covers. This opinion lacks gender also. The last opinion on the definition of genocide in this paper is from Elizabeth Nusan. She observes that: Genocide has been applied to all of the following: ‘race mixing’ (integration of blacks and non blacks); drug distribution; methadone programs; and the practice of birth control and abortions among Third World people; sterilization and Mississippi appendectomies; (tubal ligations and mysterectomies); medical treatment of Catholics; and the closing of synagogues in the Soviet Union. (95) Nusan is saying that all the things she has mentioned were alluded to in the UN definition, but not in a clear legal sense. The UN definition of genocide can be interpreted in many different ways. The definition has said clearly that there is more than mass killing when we look at genocide. Since most of the definitions above ignore gender when dealing with genocide, the need to present the relationship between gender and genocide would be clearer by giving better examples. Although this paper will use the UN definition of genocide because it is the legal one, an expansive look at the examples of genocide in the twentieth century will be undertaken to locate some of the terms which could relate to gender. First, “killing mass members of the group” (Genocide) can target men, women, and children equally. This example does not necessarily mean that gender does not play a part in the mass killings. During some mass killings in the twentieth century men were the main target, while women were forced to witness the death of their husband in front of their eyes. Secondly, rape comes under the term causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group’ because rape destroys women psychologically as much as physically. Thirdly, “imposing measures to prevent births” (“Genocide”) is targeting women in the first place. The fourth UN definition of imposing life conditions that lead to death or physical demise can have a gender dynamic also. The fifth measure of preventing births is very gender orientated. Whether sterilizing a man or woman, this is a very gender biased act. The last UN definition of genocide can be seen in gender terms as well. When making children of one group go to another group, this means that parents will be forced to adopt these children. Whether the parents want a boy or a girl will weigh on the adoptive parents’ decision. In the twentieth century, genocide has run rampant. Some of these events were famous and widely known, others were hidden and forgotten. Men, women, and children faced different kinds of crimes such as mass killing, random massacres, rape, and expulsion from their homes by force or because of fear. The motivation behind genocide could be political, religious, social, racial, or psychological. This paper will discuss four instances of genocide: the Holocaust, Rwanda, Bosnia, and Darfur. The goal to be achieved by giving these examples is to find out the relationship between gender and genocide. There is a difference in treatment toward men and women with regard to these genocides. Moreover, this paper will discuss the distinction between genders when committing the crime. The effects on men and women as a consequence of genocide are relevant as well. The Holocaust: The following is a statement by Adolf Hitler to his army commanders, August 22, 1939: Thus for the time being I have sent to the East only my 'Death's Head Units' with the orders to kill without pity or mercy all men, women, and children of Polish race or language. Only in such a way will we win the vital space that we need. Who still talks nowadays about the Armenians? (“Armenian Quote”) The Holocaust is one of the most well known instances of genocide committed in the twentieth century. The Holocaust became well known because it happened in the heart of Europe. Also the Holocaust killed a before unheard of amount of not only Jews, but innocent civilians of the countries that were forcibly occupied by the Nazis. Staub says: The word Holocaust refers to the extermination of about six million Jews by the Nazis in Germany from June 1941 to 1945. Another five million people were also killed: political opponents, mentally ill, retarded, and other genetically inferior Germans, Poles, and Russians. Gypsies, like Jews, were to be exterminated, more than 200,000 were killed. (9). By examining the different people who were murdered in this horrible crime, it becomes clear that the Nazis believed in the idea of master race. The Nazis perpetrated genocide against men, women, and children they believed to be sub-human. The races that the Nazis considered inferior were humiliated, tortured, and killed in concentration camps. The Nazis committed the genocide, but often gender became an issue in the decisions made by the SS. The following describes the processing of inmates to a concentration or death camp under the Nazis: Many women describe their horror at being required to undress in front of leering SS men and at being shaved by male prisoners…the Jewish men, from the same culture as the women, felt humiliation at having to inflict degradation on the women at the cost of their own survival. (Cohen) According to this citation, the Jewish women were humiliated. Most of these women had been raised modestly. The treatment of these women was done to embarrass and humiliate them. By using male Jewish prisoners to shave the women, the Nazis were forcing the men into an awkward situation. The male prisoners were debased by having to humiliate the women or be killed for refusing to obey orders. The Nazis used different ways to kill these people. Although the routine may vary, the Nazis were very systematic about killing Jews. Ervin Staub says: The killing took place in specially constructed camps, most located in Poland….the Jews were herded into freight cars and transported to camps. On entering the camps they were told to undress for showers. Instead they were gassed to death. (9) Every Jew was taken to the concentration camps and there was no distinction whatsoever with regard to gender (Jones). Upon arriving at the camps men and women were split into two groups. Women and children were herded to one side, men to the other. The Nazis would then look for workers. A healthy male could survive another day by working for the Nazi death machine, while women, especially women with children, went straight to the gas chambers. Differences in the treatment of the genders seem to be very clear in the Holocaust. The Nazis tried to target specific genders in the crime they committed. For example: The detention, abuse, and selective killing of “out-group” males as a signal of impending mass slaughter is quite clear in the case of the twentieth century’s “classic” genocide, the Jewish holocaust. (Jones) This citation mentions only the men as a target for the Nazis. The reason behind killing young able bodied young men was to prevent the Jews from fighting back. This tactic was used in the beginning of the war. When the Nazis started losing the war due to depleted troops and supplies, the Nazis fought over the Jewish workforce. Jewish men were more valuable workers. Hardcore SS men wanted to annihilate the Jews, while practical soldiers wanted to win the war. This horrible picture of killing innocent people and burning their bodies in huge ovens depict the extreme hatred inside the hearts of Nazis. Maybe the madness could be beyond just the Holocaust. Ervin Staub states that: Hitler’s ideology had three primary components: (1) racial purity and the racial superiority of the Germans… (2) nationalism, an extension of German power and influence… (3) the Fuhrerprinzip (leadership principle). (98) Ideology could be a clear reason to commit genocide. Hitler’s concept of Germanic purity indulged his fantasy of belonging to the master race. Some argue that the reason behind the Holocaust was religious. This is undermined by the fact that all Jews were persecuted under the Third Reich, it did not matter if they were Orthodox, Secular, or even Christian. Some say the purity of German race could be one of the motives for committing the Holocaust. No matter the reason for the Nazis’ actions, there is no doubt that every Jew became a victim. Many theories have been asserted to the reason why this horrible genocide occurred. Not even the participants, Jewish or German, have ever made sense of this atrocity towards humanity. Rwanda: The genocide in the eastern African country of Rwanda became known to the world and especially to the West in 1994. When the extremists took over, they used the radio to announce the beginning of mass killing. According to Human Rights Watch, Tutsi men were the targets of the slaughter. In addition, there were different forms and shapes of genocide committed against men and women there. “In the space of less than three months, amid general indifference, between 500,000 and a million people were killed, victims of a systematic campaign of extermination” (Jean 32). The statistics of the mass killing used to exterminate the Rwandan people is staggering. The news spread widely about the crimes committed in Rwanda. The pictures shown by the media created a universal disturbance, especially after the humanitarian disaster in the Zairian refugee camps. The crime in the Zairian camp lasted over one hundred bloodshed-filled days. Some of the victims were killed for their political views. Others were slaughtered because of their origins and ethnicity. “Some killed because of their origins (Tutsis), others because of their ideas (Hutu opponents of the regime…)” (Jean 37). The reasons behind this transgression were either the victim’s origins or ideas. The genocide in Rwanda was one of the most brutal blood bath of the twentieth century. This act of genocide created a definite gender problem in Rwanda. “When genocide erupted, the temptation for Hutu men to kill their Tutsi counterparts and seize their land, money, cattle, and belongings must be irresistible” (Jones). This statement gives another possible reason for the execution of the Tutsi men, the theft of Tutsi property. Another reason: One might even argue that the genocide represented to some extent as an attempt by Rwanda’s extremist rulers to solve the gender crisis of Hutu men by making available resources…. This would simultaneously bring the final solution to the problem of the Tutsi minority in Rwanda. (Jones) It appears that capturing Tutsi’s properties, with the added benefit ridding the ruling population of the minority group were the main reasons for committing this crime. According to Human Rights Watch, the death toll was 800,000 Rwandans in a matter of only three months. Rape became a big issue in Rwanda. United Nations special Rapporteur, Rene Degni Segui, stated “Rape was the rule and its absence the exception” (Neuffer). Women were tortured, humiliated, raped, and killed. According to the United Nations’ estimation, between 250,000 and 500,000 rapes were committed during the genocide in Rwanda. Many women were forced to strip, were sexually abused, and some contracted HIV/AIDS because of that criminal act (“Women of Rwanda: Marked for Death”). One woman who was raped during that miserable time said: I lost my husband during the war, but the killers said they would just rape me and leave me alive…I lost consciousness after he was killed, even during the rape, and awoke next to his body…. I won’t participate in gacaca (village tribunals) because of the trauma it will cause me to testify, and anyway I don’t know who my rapists or killers of my husband were. I have seven children, but only two go to school because we are poor. I have AIDS now and worry who will take care of them once I die (Neuffer). Rape has always existed during wartime. “War and Rape often go hand in hand…. Rape as a part of warfare is not about having sex, it is also about having someone’s else property” (Neuffer). Rape might be used to show victory, control, suppression, and humiliation. It could be a way to destroy the defeated physically and mentally. In Rwanda rape was used to terrorize and punish (Nueffer). Also the rapes in Rwanda spread the epidemic of AIDS. These women might not have been out right killed like their husbands, but they were handed a death sentence the day they were raped. The terrible things done to the Tutsi men and the rape of Tutsi women in Rwanda defy explanation. The Rwandan incident plainly shows that the criminals targeted each gender by using different methods. As a result of the dreadful situation in Rwanda, many Rwandans decided to flee to neighbouring countries. The Rwandan Tutsi feared being slaughtered by the extreme Hutu faction. The Hutu perpetrated the genocide effectively against both sexes of the Tutsi population. Bosnia: The Bosnian genocide took place in the 1990’s. Serbs believed they were superior to their Muslim neighbours of Bosnia. Serbian crimes against Bosnians began by mass killing and destruction of Muslims’ places of worship. From 1992 to 1995, 250,000 were killed, most of them civilians. The History Place website states that: The Serbs began to systematically roundup local Muslims in scenes eerily similar to those that had occurred under the Nazis during World War II, including mass shootings, forced repopulation of entire towns, and confinement in make-shift concentration camps for men and boys. The Serbs also terrorized Muslim families into fleeing their villages by using rape as a weapon against women and girls. (“Genocide in the 20th Century”) Gender dictated Serb treatment towards men and women. Bosnian men were killed and women were destroyed psychologically by being raped and witnessing their husbands’ deaths. Rape was used as a weapon against Muslim women in Bosnia. Elizabeth Neuffer states “The European community, investigating rapes in Bosnia…published a report stating that 20,000 Muslim women in Bosnia had been raped” (276). Perhaps the Serbs’ goal was to change the ethnicity of the Bosnian. Bearing that in mind, many Bosnian women got pregnant as a result of this systematic rape. Since the majority of Bosnia women raped were Muslim, they had to follow Islamic law. Islamic law forbids abortions except in cases where the mother’s life is at stake. So the women had to choose between bringing a half Serb child into the world, dishonouring their religion, or killing themselves from the shame. No matter what choice the raped pregnant women made, genocide occurred with their decision. Rape was also used as a tool to destroy, to humiliate, and to torture (Fein). “One 27-year-old woman told Newsday she was raped up to six times at night” (Gutman). Many Bosnian women witnessed the violent rape of female neighbours and family members. Another woman was raped in the hall before the eyes of the others held there, witnesses said “This shows that Bosnian women were destroyed physically, physiologically, and mentally be being raped and witnessing their fellow sisters getting raped in front of their eyes” (Gutman). The stories of Muslim women being raped are numerous. The rapes in Bosnia was organized and ordered by the Serbian government. One source states: The Serb irregulars led Amela (a Bosnian woman) off with a knife to her throat. She thinks the men were under orders to rape because, when she begged to be let go, her Serb tormentor replied: "I can't. I have to”. (McKinsey) Although both women and men were targeted in this act of genocide, the gender of the person determined their fate. Men were tortured and killed. Women were humiliated in mass rapes. This illustrates clearly the importance of gender upon the Serbs’ decision when targeting men or women. The common factor between the Bosnian men and women were the fact they were ethnically Bosnian. 2.3 million Bosnians were forced to leave their homes and cities in order to avoid the danger of being killed or raped. Jean claims that “The war that has raged in Bosnia…forced more than three million refugees and displaced persons into exile” (70). The Serbs set out to destroy the Bosnian way of life. Although as long as one Bosnian survives, the Serbian effort failed on whole, the Serbs definitely damaged the Bosnian way of life. Darfur: Darfur is considered to be the biggest region in Sudan. It is located on the eastern borders with Libya and Chad. The tragedy of Darfur became clear to the eyes of the international community in 2003. The conflict started between Janjaweed, a government-supported militia, recruited from local Arab tribes, and the non-Arab peoples of the region (“Darfar Conflict”). The situation in Darfur displayed similarities to Rwanda and other places where genocide has occurred. According to World Health Organization that: 50,000 deaths in Darfur since the conflict's beginning, mostly by starvation; in October, its head gave an estimate of 71,000 deaths by starvation and disease alone between March and October 2004. While a recent British Parliamentary Report estimates that over 300,000 people have already died[2], the United Nations estimates that 180,000 have died in the 18 months of the conflict [3]. More than 1.8 million people had been displaced from their homes. 200,000 have fled to neighboring Chad. (“Darfar Conflict”) Non-Arab African men have been targeted the Janjaweed for mass killing. Pictures displaying the men were left dead in the middle of the streets have popped up on the Internet. The mass killing of men is gender orientated genocide. Like in the conflicts above, Darfar’s genocide treats men based on their gender. Like in Bosnia and Rwanda, the use of rape as a weapon occurred excessively in Darfur. A CNN reporter interviewed surviving women who had been raped. The CNN correspondent reported: Both Aisha and her friend were violently raped by their attackers. Held for hours, they finally escaped without their clothing, fleeing naked back to the camp and arriving after midnight. That same night, four other women from the camp - ranging from teenagers to married women in their thirties - were also raped. (Mariner)These rapes became a genocide act because it was used to destroy an ethnic group. These rapes were used to impregnate unwilling women. The spread of the AIDS epidemic, like in Rwanda, perpetrated a slow death to the non-Arab women population of Darfar. In Darfar, the act of genocide was committed against people of the same colour or race. The Janjaweed, or Arab tribes, and the non-Arab tribes are both Muslims. This act of genocide was committed between two people that had conflicting views. The Arab tribes were nomadic, where the non-Arabs farmed one piece of land in a sedentary type of life. There is no agreement between critics on defining genocide as a crime against humanity. Some scholars have criticized the United Nations’ definition of genocide. Other genocide definitions have concentrated on the destruction of the race through sterilization and rape. Most of the definitions outlined in this essay concentrate on mass killing. If I were to define genocide, it would be summed up in one sentence. Genocide is the destruction of life, way of life, or reproductive rights of a group, sharing one or more the following combinations of race, religion, social status, beliefs, or nation. The impact of genocide remains in the souls of the victims, with effects that could be mental or physical. Just because a person in a group targeted by genocide survives, does not mean that this person did not have a little bit of their soul die along with their comrades. Death does not always come swiftly. Yes, most people targeted by genocide are victims of mass killings immediately. Yet, there are other more painful and slower deaths. Torture and rape can drive a survivor to suicide, or curse the victim with such physical harm, they die slowly. Like in the cases of rape in Bosnia, Rwanda, and Darfar, many victims contracted AIDS. The Nazis experimented on some Jews injecting them with toxins or bombarding them with radiation. These people had health problems until their early demise. The effects of genocide last for generations. This essay has tried to show the importance of gender when looking at the definition of genocide. The examples of genocide discussed in this essay show that the relationship between gender and genocide, more likely than not, becomes a deciding factor for the architect of the genocide. The treatment of men and women differ from conflict to conflict. The Nazis rarely raped women, because they feared of impregnating a sub-human with a child from the master race. Yet, the Nazis killed women first in the concentration camps because they needed a male workforce. On the other hand, in Bosnia, Rwanda, and Darfar raping women to impregnate them with a different race or to spread AIDS was common practice. In every example presented here, men and women were treated differently in every case of genocide based on their gender. Gender relates to genocide as much as rape, sterilization, or mass killings. Gender is a defining aspect of genocide. Bibliography “Armenian Quote” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 2005. Wikipedia. 10 Dec. 2005 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_quote. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. “Women of Rwanda: Marked for Death” Portland Independent Media Centre. 2004. Portland Independent Media Centre. 10 Dec. 2005 http://portland.indymedia.org/‌en/‌2004/‌04/‌285277.shtml Read More