Are Management Systems Needed in Youth Work - Literature review Example

? Are Management Systems needed in youth work? Literature Review Academia-RESEARCH Order 527216 Naseem G.H. Chagani May 4, Are Management Systems Needed In Youth Work? BACKGROUND A new Management Information System (MIS) is recently purchased by my organisation. Part of my role involves quality assurance and because of this my line manager has decided to give me overall responsibility of implementing the change required within the youth service. The way staff collates and record their work needs to be changed by using the new computerized information system. I feel the change required for the implementation of a new system is one of the biggest challenges I will face as a manager and that the youth service must research seriously from the beginning. There will be a significant amount of change over the coming years therefore I am very interested to explore whether MIS systems will actually help youth work upon implementation of the new system after managing the huge changes required by the system. How is this relevant to my professional practice? Change is thrust upon youth workers on a regular basis and my dissertation topic, in my opinion, is very relevant to my professional practice as it will test my ability or inability as a manager of managing change. I plan to devise a strategy for innovation and change regarding the way information is collected, evaluated and presented within the youth service covering a two year period based upon my research findings and not on the approach of –a system has been bought we must change everything in order to use it immediately. LITERATURE Three course books of Master of Computer Science, Information Technology, were referred most. Internet was also searched for appropriate materials and following result was found. An advance search for “Research methods” produced about 84,800,000 references, search for “Management Theories” produced about 36,200,000 references, “Leadership Styles” produced about 15,400,000 references, “Change Management” produced about 288,000,000 references, “Management Information System” produced about 283,000,000 references, and “Organizational Development” produced about 26,500,000 references. A look up was made in each of the above search one by one and the best from the top was selected. A total number of eleven publications were chosen for reading and collecting further information. FINDINGS I have identified six themes in this section for effective implementation of Management Information System: understanding concepts and deliverables; assessing values and functionalities; methodologies for successful deployment; managing resources; and benefiting from intensive usage; leading staff and managing change. Understanding Concepts and Deliverables A set of components combined together to bring out or produce a desired whole is known as a system. There are many types of systems (Pidwirny 2006). Most systems share many common characteristics but there are three most important components which when integrated together forms a system: Inputs; Process; and Outputs. A system receives inputs; process them with some functionalities; and produces outputs. Information is a processed data, the one which a human mind can easily understand. If a set of numbers are given in a row and column grid as shown in figure 1, it is not possible to understand what this data means and to whom it belongs until the data is processed. If the same data is processed and produced as shown in figure 2, it becomes now possible for every one to understand what this data means and to whom it belongs. This processed data is called Information. “Data represents facts of any kind. In the process of recording important particulars of any event, it is the discretion of the management, what should be recorded and how it should be presented. When this data is processed or reformatted, it becomes Information. Information is a subset of data which adds to the knowledge.” (Mujaheed 2009) The original source from which information comes or its distance to originality categorizes sources of information as Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. Information ranking is done according to its quality. The quality is measured based on the author and aims of the information. Aims tell how clear the information is, for whom it is and what it is and whether it achieves its aim or not. The role of data and information and its quality is fundamental to any Management Information System. If the data or information collected is incomplete, inaccurate or false, the main purpose and aim of the management information system is destroyed. The reports, summaries and analysis become misleading. Any decisions made on such information guarantees failure. The real world example of this is like raw materials of a manufacturing unit. If the qualities of raw materials are not upto the required standard, the product produced will be sub-standard. There are so many common phrases used for this important phenomenon e.g. Garbage in, garbage out; as you sow, so shall your reap. Management as defined in “MGT503 Principles of Management” (Rashid 2009) is “The process of coordinating and integrating work activities such that they are completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. The process represents the ongoing functions of primary activities typically labeled as Planning, Organizing, Leading and Controlling” If we study in detail about what is expected of management, we find that the management is responsible and accountable for following work:- Function Responsibility Planning Deciding what is to be done Organizing Making arrangements Staffing Selecting the right people for the right job Directing Giving instructions Monitoring Checking on progress Controlling Taking action to remedy hold-ups Innovating Coming up with new solutions Representing liaising with users, etc. The Management Information System is an application program designed with two main objectives. First aim is to design friendly user interfaces (Windows forms) through which data is collected and validated easily, accurately and completely. Second aim is to process this collected data and produce reports, summaries and analysis as per layouts and parameters defined by the management. This requires proper knowledge and experience about the relevant business processes. Scientific methods are used to determine the exact needs and appropriate business processes and intermediary deliverables are generated for the final approval. Whenever these deliverables are undelivered or omitted, the implementation of the software ends up in a conflict with the users as well as with the management. TABLE 1 (Phases and Deliverables of Management Information System) Phases Deliverables Process and procedures Requirement Gathering 1. Business Requirements 2. Functional Specification 3. Non-Functional Specification 4. Use Case Diagram 5. Usage Scenarios 1. All the users are interviewed for gathering information about the requirements. 2. The existing software is studied simultaneously. 3. Details of the requirements are noted down 4. A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document is prepared having 5 deliverables. Design and Analysis 1. Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) 2. Entity Relationship Diagram 3. Activity Diagram 4. Sequence Diagram 5. Architectural Diagram 6. Class Diagram 7. Database Design 8. Interface Design 9. Deployment Diagram 10. Test Cases 1. Analysis of Requirements 2. Making of Design Coding and Testing 1. Deployment package 2. SQL Server 2000 database 3. User e-manual (PDF format 1. Construction of code in VB.NET or any other language agreed. 2. Windows based application to develop and test as per the specification made Implementation and training 1. Software CD 2. Training lessons 1. Software deployment on site 2. Users’ training It is therefore essential to understand what these deliverables are and why it should be approved by the user and management before starting any work in MIS. Table 1 shows the phases, name of deliverables and their purpose. Deployment of Management Information System should be finalized only after receipt of these fourteen documents or materials. In case the software is not made-to-order or customized but it is purchased off-the-shelf from the market, it becomes even more important that its functionalities and values are assessed as in this case only users manual is received with the MIS software. Assessing Values and Functionalities The realistic assessment of the software is the most important aspect for any successful deployment and implementation of the Management Information System. Learning the ways of assessing the value and functionalities of a management information system, leads to the selection of the right software off-the-shelf. It also ensures production of a high quality solution in case of customized development of the software. “MIS should have a clearly defined framework of guidelines, policies or practices, standards, and procedures for the organization.” (Comptroller’s Handbook 1995) There are three important aspects of assessment and evaluation process. The first aspect is about the data and its safety and processing and reports the system offers. The second aspect to be assessed and evaluated is to prepare a list of what the system does not offer. What are the omissions and the risks and hazards it has? How risks and hazards are to be managed in case of a disaster. The third aspect is about Computer-Human interaction. This is where the quality of information and the process of communication between human and computer are assessed. Each one of this is now elaborated due to its immense significance. Table 2 gives below things about data that must be checked, the processes or functions to be used for its processing and the number of times, the process or function should execute. TABLE 2 (Assessment and Evaluation guidelines) Things (What?) Methods (How?) Frequency (When?) Data Origin Authentication process Time of collection Data Accuracy Validation process Time of transfer Data Loss Verification at source Time of generation Data Completeness Checking process Time of collection Data Saving Backup process Daily and Monthly Data Processing Defining functions Coding program Report Generating Defining parameters Dialogue before report generation Report Generating Layouts verifying process Coding program Data Security Users rights assigning process Creating new users Data Logging Log points defining process Every time data is saved/changed Data Theft Access rights allocating process Creating new users Internal Audit Auditing by internal controller Time of data finalizing External Audit Auditing by random sampling Once a month unknown time It is observed quite often that the user generally assume for certain features and facilities as built in within the program. In real world it is quite contrary. Every minute little thing must have been planned and discussed for integration in the system. It is therefore very important that an evaluation is conducted as to what is not available in the system which is mostly omitted by assumptions. A list of risks and hazards attached with such omissions must be made and a policy and procedure must be defined to handle it in case of any disaster. The third assessment is that of Computer-Human interaction. “Human-Computer Interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them” (CS408 Human Computer Interaction,2009) The prime test is that of usability. The Usability should be tested for Effectiveness, Efficiency, Safety, Utility, Learnability and Memorability. The figure UI gives usability goals around the inner circle and the purpose or benefit on the outer circle. Figure UI User-Interface model Assessing values and functionalities of a Management Information System make it necessary for an organization to define their framework of guidelines, policies or practices, and standards. This should include data origin, accuracy, loss, completeness, saving, and backup. It should also give exact procedures for each and every function to be automated such as authentication, validation, verification, checking, data replication and back-up. It should also provide accurate instructions on the number of parameters to be asked and used for generating reports. Methods to use for data analysis such as sorting, summarizing, comparing, calculating percentages or variance, should also be given. The approved layout for each and every report intended to be produced from the system, should also be included in the list of standards. The framework should further have a disaster management plan to account for hazards and risk of the omissions from the system. It should also give an alternative for managing such an event. The framework should also have policies and procedures for computer-human interaction based on the goals of usability. Methodologies for Successful Deployment When the Management Information System is ready for deployment, it is important that proper methodologies are adopted to avoid delays, conflicts and failures. Methodologies are to be made for setting up cordial office layout; selecting the right hardware; configuring fast and reliable network; administering and managing data; training on using software; developing software users; supporting and servicing; and implement rights and security. They should be applied on resources and assigned by designating responsibility. Table 3 below shows this in a form of a matrix. TABLE 3 (Methodologies for Successful Deployment) Methodology Apply to resources Responsibility Setting up Cordial layout System users I.T. Manager Selecting the Right Hardware System units and peripherals I.T. Manager, purchaser, owner Configuring Fast and Reliable Network Network I.T. Manager, purchaser, owner Administering and managing data Database I.T. Manager, Developer Training on using software System users I.T. Manager, Developer Developing software users System users I.T. Manager, Developer Supporting and servicing System units, peripherals and system users I.T. Manager, Developer Implement rights and security System units, peripherals and system users I.T. Manager, owner The person who is responsible to implement the Management Information System must manage through his functionalities and capabilities all the resources gathered in the process of deploying the Management Information System. These resources include, Computer Hardware, Network, Computer Software, System Users, I.T. Manager, Trainer and Service Supporter, and Developer of the system. Managing Resources The accumulation of resources upon deploying and using Management Information System becomes a real challenge for the Manager as the responsibility for utilizing these resources effectively and efficiently lies on him. The role of manager therefore becomes very important. The efficient management brings out maximum performance from available resources whether it is people or system. Style in which management is carried out affects the performance and motivation of the people. A leader’s style personifies the management. To have an efficient and effective management, leadership function plays the most important part. The style of leadership is generally classified as autocratic, paternalistic, democratic, and Laissez-Faire. Autocratic leader takes his own decisions without any input from his subordinates or colleagues. Paternalistic leader is although very autocratic yet he takes decision in the best interest of his staff and organization. Democratic leader allows all his stakeholders to share their views and take the decision based on what majority decides. Laissez-Faire is a free for all type leadership where key decision making is also delegated to the subordinates. In today’s changing world, it is difficult to carry out a constant style of leadership. It needs to be changed according to the situation; then what should be the style? “Leadership is a function of knowing yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to realize your own leadership potential” (what-are-good-leadership-skills 2007) As a manager, one has to assess his own style of leadership and see what adjustments are needed to achieve the main goal of the organization. In 1970 a new style of leadership was introduced by Robert Greenleaf in his essay “The Servant as a Leader: They are often humble managers that are extremely talented at tapping into the expertise of their entire organization.” (how-to-change-your-management-style, 2011) Today is the world of changing times. You sleep at night with one plan and end up next day with something totally different; reason being the drastic changes around us taking place all the times. This rapidly changing environment has brought many management contemporary theories in lime light like Contingency Theory, Systems Theory, and Chaos Theory. “Contemporary theories of management tend to account for and help interpret the rapidly changing nature of today’s organizational environments.”(Carter McNamara 2011) When we look in the history of management, we find many theories “MGT503 Principles of Management” (Rashid 2009). Scientific Management Theory developed by Frederick Taylor and used from 1890-1940. Bureaucratic Management Theory developed by Max Weber and used from 1930-1950 Human Relations Movement Theory (1930-today) was the outcome of unions and government regulations. Organizations added human resource departments and individuals began to get more attention and many new theories such as “X” theory, “Y” theory and “Z” theory were originated. The role of manager gets further complicated if the behavior in his organization is not right. The organizational behavior is therefore one the other important issue which a manager needs to look into. “Organizational Behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact; individuals, groups and structures have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness” “MGT502 Organizational Behavior” (VU 2009). The performance of an organization rests on the employees who operate it. Motivating and rewarding employees, is one of the most important and one of the most challenging activities that managers perform. There are number of motivation theories that are used to induce motivation and get outstanding performance from employee. Some of the most popular theories are Needs theory which is a collection of theories that focuses workers’ needs as the source of motivation. A need is a requirement for survival and well-being and theories that concentrate on needs are:- Hertzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory McClelland’s descriptions of the needs for achievement, affiliation and power Abraham Maslow’s five needs theory Clay Alderfer’s existence-relatedness-growth (ERG) theory The discussion of several management theories above gives one important message. It is the act of management that will get the organization goal achieved through coordination and motivation of the people. What is this act of management? It is “Change Management” Leading Staff and Managing Change Managing Change Any change when occurs, needs to be managed. It can be organizational change or personal change. There are simple and effective rules when followed bring out the effective management of change. These rules were presented by Mr. John P Kotter, a Harvard Business School Professor in his highly regarded book “Leading change” (1995) and the follow-up “The Heart of Change”(2002) through a model which gave the key principle relating to people’s response and approach to change, in which people see, feel and then change. “The 8 Step Process outlined by Professor Kotter, organizations can avoid failure and become adept at change” (kotterinternational.com 2010). These eight steps are:- 1. Acting With Urgency In today’s rapidly changing world there are crises, challenges and opportunities. A manager must have urgency to recognize such eventualities. He should also have vision and strength to convert them into opportunities. He should act with urgency to investigate the market and the competition on the ground. 2. Developing the Guiding Coalition It is commonly understood that solo efforts seldom succeeds but team efforts often wins. Building a group, team or coalition of common goals is the right way of managing change. Team member must be selected on the basis of his abilities to contribute in attaining the goals. All members should be well informed and communicated their roles, responsibilities and authorities. Each member must have complete knowledge of what is expected of him and what will be his contributions in the team as a member. 3. Developing a Change Vision The picture of change should be drawn and developed to show its costs and benefits, its effects before and after the change and its advantages and disadvantages. Policies, procedures and strategies should be made in the form of a framework to achieve the change. 4. Communicating the Vision Buy-in The framework of policies, procedures and strategies made must be communicated to all stake holders affected and influenced. New attitudes and traits required for change should be taught through the team or group or concerned employees. 5. Empowering Broad-based Action All the barriers that seriously hinder or undermine the framework should be removed. If it is found necessary, modify the system or structures. Any innovative ideas, activities or actions should be encouraged. 6. Generating Short-term Wins All measures to improve performance should be planned and those improvements should be made to make the change visible. The employees contributing in achieving these improvements should be recognized and rewarded. 7. Don't Let Up Never let the efforts slow down and framework fizzle out. Develop existing people with appropriate knowledge and skills and if they fail, recruit new people. Replenish the team and put greater vigor and force to rapidly achieve the change 8. Make Change Stick Once the change is achieved stick to it and communicate relationship between new attitudes and success of the organization. Develop human resources to ensure continuity and progress Leading Staff Changes are always managed but staffs that bring these changes are always led. The role of leader is therefore foremost as he is the role model and idol for his staffs. There are several theories suggesting the best practices for the role of leader. Brian Ward in his book states five steps to become better leader. He says “In Lead People...Manage Things, I lead you through five key steps you can take to become a better leader, a 'high performance' leader.”(Brian 2011) These five steps are:- 1. FOCUS The focus of a leader must be the goals, aims and objectives. Any deviation from the focus will create hurdles and difficulties in achieving the goal. 2. AUTHENTICITY The authenticity is the value of what is said and done in front of a person and behind his back. Authenticity must be assessed and evaluated. One must be true, honest and diplomat. 3. COURAGE Courage is the ability to face a challenge when your goals, values and decisions are opposed. The change of attitude, acceptance of mistake or not justifying wrong doings requires courage and strength. 4. EMPATHY The urgency in which comprehension is made is also very important. Perceiving some thing after it happens is of no use. Better decisions are always taken when the problems, constraints and options are well understood and perceived on time. 5. TIME The ability to make right decision, at right time and at right place is one the key properties of a leader. Right decisions at wrong time or place are never correct and always create problems. Benefiting from intensive usage When the manager succeeds in deploying the Management Information System and handle human and material resources efficiently, then its first indication is “intensive usage.” The intensity gradually makes the organization totally dependable on the system. This is the time when true benefits of the system can be drawn in quick time to recover the huge cost of investment in Management Information System. The benefits which are generally derived are:- 1. Availability of wide range of analytical data on the basis of following parameters:- a) Periods: Daily, weekly, monthly, yearly and periodical. b) Trends: Upward, downward, straight. c) Movement: Fast, slow, normal d) Comparison: based on past and present data e) Age: Based on 30 days, 60 days, 90 days and older f) Exceptions: Based on if and then conditions. 2. Right sizing of employees and staff 3. Increase in productivity of individual due to automation 4. Cost savings due to increased ability of handling huge volume of business 5. Cater for information needs at different levels such as strategic, knowledge, management and operational levels 6. Revolutionizing of relationship with people such as customers, suppliers or staff CONCLUSIONS Training and development of each and every individual user should be made compulsory System generated reports are to be used intensively to encourage full use of the system The eight steps of change management must be practiced The leader should remember that challenges are managed but people are led and therefore their role is foremost. REFERENCES Pidwirny, M. (2006), "Definitions of Systems and Models", Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, viewed May 5, 2011, http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/4b.html Dr. Rashid Kausar, RK, 24-FEB-2009, MGT503 Principles of Management, Course Material, Virtual University of Pakistan, Lahore. Mujaheed Shaheed, MS, 24-FEB-2009, CS507 Information System, Course Material, Virtual University of Pakistan, Lahore. Virtual University, HCI, 24-FEB-2009, CS408 Human Computer Interaction, Course Material, Virtual University of Pakistan, Lahore. Comptroller of the Currency, OCC (2005), "Management Information System, Comptroller’s Handbook, viewed May 5, 2011, http://ww.occ.gov/static/publications/handbook.pdf www.what-are-good-leadership-skills, (2007), "Definition of Leadership: Results and Relationships”, viewed May 5, 2011, http://www.what-are-good-leadership-skills.com/definition-of-leadership.html how-to-change-your-management-style, (2011),”How to change your management style”, viewed May 5, 2011, http://www.inc.com/guides/201105/how-to-change-your-management-style.html Carter McNamara, 2011, “Brief Overview of Contemporary Theories in Management”, viewed May 5, 2011 http://managementhelp.org/mgmnt/cntmpory.htm Brian Ward, 2011, ‘Lead People… Manage Things’, Book, Training-Store.com View May 16, 2011, http://www.training-store.com/index.php?app=ccp0&ns=prodshow&ref=LPMT Read More