Types of Employee Turnover - Research Paper Example

Employee turnover or labour turnover has been the concern of organizations in most sectors but there is no universally accepted reason why employees chose to leave. Sound human resource practices have been found to be responsible for low turnover. Singapore Airlines (SIA) is one of the premier airlines in the world. It has achieved competitive advantage over the competitors over three decades. Despite being the most preferred employer and despite having sound HR practices SIA experiences high staff turnover. With the aim to evaluate the causes for high turnover at SIA three objectives have been set. This was a qualitative study where secondary data was searched through academic journals and reputed websites. Primary data was collected through focus group interviews. The study found that the cause for high staff turnover at SIA is low job satisfaction. Job satisfaction involves satisfaction with pay, satisfaction with the nature of work and satisfaction with supervision. The employees at SIA are dissatisfied with the basic pay and this is especially so after some years of employment. While low wages suffice for fresh graduates as they advance in their employment their responsibilities too increase which necessitates higher wages. The study concluded with recommendations for further research and limitations to the study have been highlighted. Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Rationale for research 2 1.3 Significance of the study 2 1.4 Organization of the study 3 Chapter II Literature Review 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 Definition and types of employee turnover 4 2.3 Causes and implications of employee turnover 4 2.4 Labour unions and employee turnover 6 2.5 Experience of other airlines 6 2.6 Singapore Airlines 7 2.7 Theoretical framework 7 Chapter III Methodology 3.1 Measures 9 3.2 Sampling 9 Chapter IV Findings and Discussion 4.1 Demographics 11 4.2 Job Satisfaction 11 Chapter V Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Conclusion 14 5.2 Recommendations for future research 15 References 16 Appendix 19 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background The airline industry is extremely challenging as it has a disastrous business cycle, overcapacity, high-risk profile, difficulty of differentiation, easy to replicate strategies and structural unattractiveness (Wirtz, Heracleous & Pangarkar, 2008). Being in the service industry meeting end exceeding customer expectations is another challenge. Since the delivery of service depends on the human assets, getting the human resource management right is a challenge for the service firms. Employee turnover or labour turnover is the movement of labour from one working organization to another. This has been the concern of organizations in most sectors but there is no universally accepted reason why employees chose to leave. Organizations hence are unable to predict when and why the individuals are likely to leave the organization. Labour shortage has given rise to bad attitude among employees and employees job-hop for no reason at all. Khatri, Budhwar and Fern (1999) find that poor management practices are the main source of high employee turnover. Job-hopping has become the culture in many nations and organizations. Successful corporations such as Starbucks and Southwest Airlines attribute their profitability to sound human resources practices as their emphasis is on employee retention and development (Barlow, 2002). Other human resources practices that can positively impact and reduce staff turnover include results-oriented performance appraisals, employment security, and profit sharing. Singapore Airlines, one of the premier airlines in the world, is associated with high employee turnover despite having sound HR practices. This gives rise to concerns whether it is bad assessment of the employees’ needs and motivation within SIA. 1.2 Rationale for research Foreign airlines such as Emirates, Qatar Airways, Malaysian Airlines, Singapore Airlines, Oman Air and China Eastern Airlines recruit cabin crew from India and the attrition rate is very high (Shukla & Thiyagarajan, 2011). Singapore Airlines (SIA) is one of the premier airlines in the world. It has achieved competitive advantage over the competitors over three decades simply because it spends 15% of its payroll on staff training (Liu, 2010). SIA has two main assets which it manages more efficiently than its rivals – planes and people. It employed a total of 21,354 staff at the end of March 2011 (Hoover’s Company Profile, 2012). It trains its fresh recruits for four months – twice as long as the industry average of eight weeks. They also invest in retraining and their training includes lesson on deportment, etiquette, wine appreciation and cultural sensitivity (Heracleous & Wirtz, 2010). They are trained to interact differently with customers from different cultural background. SIA also takes pride in the fact that they are able to attract first class university graduates who are hardworking and ambitious. Most employees want to work for SIA if given a chance (Xieli, 2011). The question then arises, if SIA is the ‘employer of choice’, if it attracts educated people, if it follows the principles of an engaged and committed workforce, why is the turnover at SAI high? If it invests in training the staff more than its rivals do, why is employee turnover high at SIA? SIA group employees are represented by five labour unions and the relationship between the labour unions and the management has been ‘testy’ at times especially after a series of wage cuts, retrenchment and early retirement (Hoover’s Company Profile, 2012). If the airline is the ‘employer of choice’ and when it has five labour unions to resolve issues between the employees and the management, why is the turnover still high? Thus, with the aim to evaluate the cause for high turnover at SIA, the objectives of the research are: To evaluate the HR policies of other airlines and organizations in the service sector To determine whether job satisfaction is positively associated with employee turnover To evaluate the motivation techniques that SIA employs 1.3 Significance of the study The service sector needs continuity in the service staff as investments in training and development are heavy. However, high turnover adversely impacts the benefits of continuity. If this research can ascertain the cause of high employee turnover at SIA, purportedly one of the most successful airlines in delivering service excellence, others in the service sector could also use this as a benchmark to change their strategies. 1.4 Organization of the study Chapter I lays the context of the study, the rationale for the study and the aims and objectives. It also presents the organization of the study. Literature on the subject has been reviewed in Chapter II after which the theoretical framework has been made. Justification for the chosen methodology has been presented in Chapter III. In Chapter IV the primary data collected through questionnaire has been presented and the findings discussed. Chapter V carries the conclusion and recommendations for future areas of research on the subject. Chapter II Literature Review 2.1 Introduction Literature review is essential to evaluate and form the theoretical framework for the study. Thus, definitions and concept of labour turnover has been discussed after which the causes and implication of high turnover has been reviewed. Strategies at other organizations have been looked and the methodology finalized based on the literature reviewed under these sections. Data has been sourced through academic journals as well as reputed websites. 2.2 Definition and types of employee turnover Employee turnover in the labour market is the rotation of workers between firms, jobs and occupation (Bontis & Fitz-enz, 2002). It is the rotation of workers between the stats of employment and unemployment. Staff turnover can be voluntary or involuntary. When the employee resigns on his own voluntary turnover ash occurred. This happens when the organization is unable to effectively manage their turnover as it relates to knowledge management, contend the authors. In other words the organization is unable to leverage the intellectual capital that exists within the organization. When the employee turnover is low the organizational knowledge bases is high and there is less loss of experiential knowledge. Knowledge management initiatives can reduce staff turnover and enhance business performance if aligned with HR policies. In the tourism sector staff turnover normally occurs involuntarily and in unpredictable frequencies. It is usually found among the staff at the operational levels (Chalkiti & Sigala, 2010). 2.3 Causes and implications of employee turnover Reasons of staff turnover have been attributed to causes related to the industry, to the individual and to the organization (Chalkiti & Sigala, 2010). Thus the reasons can range from low job satisfaction and morale to unsociable working conditions and no career progression to low financial gains. Gustafson (2002) cites eight frequently cited reasons for staff turnover – working conditions, quality of supervision, ineffective communication, low pay and few benefits, lack of clear definitions of responsibilities, inability to fit with the organizational culture, and no direction at work. Inconvenient working hours and lack of career opportunities are other reasons cited by DiPietro, Thozhur & Milman, 2007). Badly trained managers and poor HR practices also contribute towards high employee turnover. In the service industry prolonged job stress is higher which can lead to burnouts, absenteeism and consequently high turnover (Buick & Thomas, 2001). Work life conflicts also add to the staff turnover (Deery, 2008). Employee turnover creates an unnecessary cost burden on the organizations which encourages them to develop a strategy of staff retention. The costs due to high turnover can be categorized into separation costs, recruitment costs, selection costs, hiring costs and loss of productivity costs. High staff turnover also results in low morale among the staff thereby affecting productivity (Barlow, 2002). Apart from these monetary implications, staff turnover can also have intangible, structural, relational and knowledge implications (Chalkiti & Sigala, 2010). In addition it can also have functional and dysfunctional impacts on the firm performance. Such non-economic impacts include the beneficial impacts of knowledge circulation and revitalization leading to innovation generation opportunities, the psychological impacts that staff turnover can have on the remaining staff, negative impacts on the work environment and the organizational culture (Chalkiti & Sigala, 2010). Constant turnover of staff disrupts the firm’s way of operating as it brings in a diverse workforce. The dynamics of interaction among the staff is affected which also impacts the socialization process (Madsen, Mosakowaski & Zaheer, 2002). The direct costs include repetitive advertisement costs for attracting labour, recruiting a replacement worker and the costs associated with overtime during the recruitment process. It also includes cost of new suppliers such as new uniform to the new recruits. The indirect costs include loss of goodwill, loss of reputation and low staff morale among the existing employees (Hogan, 1992; Dermody, Young & Taylor, 2004). It also includes loss of customers due to service discontinuity. Spreitzer and Korath (2012) believe that a thriving workforce is not one that is satisfied and productive. Such employees are also engaged in creating their own and the company’s future. The two components of thriving are vitality and learning which have to be essentially built into their jobs. Conditions for thriving include decision-making discretion, sharing information, minimizing incivility and offering performance feedback. For employees to thrive requires an environment where they are empowered by the leaders. 2.4 Labour unions and employee turnover Labour unions and trade unions provide efficient solutions to workers’ problems. An institution is a set of explicit and implicit rules, norms or even contractual agreements (Freeman, 1998). Workers unionize in response to workplace problems and these unions are able to resolve the issues to the satisfaction of both sides. It is thus surprising that SIA despite having five different labour unions faces issues of high employee turnover. Delery et al (2000) endorse that turnover is less in heavily unionized industries as their bargaining power increases wages and other benefits. Voluntary turnover is reduced as workers have a greater voice in decisions that affect their work life. 2.5 Experience of other airlines British Airways suffered as it did not have a human-asset approach to business. In their attempt to cut costs to meet financial targets they neglected their employee. They not only outsourced functions but they also ignored the fact that organizational targets and objectives should be consistent with the values and objectives of its human assets (Ledwidge, 2007). Jet Blue has an entirely different strategy where it allows its employees to work from home. This not only saves in costs but it supports flexible working conditions for those who need it. This has resulted in the staff turnover rate being 3.4 percent and the company is able to attract quality people. JetBlue uses technology to accommodate people whereas the call centers use people to accommodate technology where the turnover is as high as 39 percent. Its strategy to place people considerations at the forefront has given JetBlue competitive advantage. In the Greek tourism industry staff turnover has been associated with factors beyond the control of the management (Chalkiti & Sigala, 2010). Staff turnover negatively affects service quality levels apart from the costs incurred in recruitment and training. Staff turnover occurs mostly at the operational or front-office departments. Staff turnover has an insignificant effect on idea generation and a neutral effect on idea rejuvenation or social and work relationships. Staff turnover has not been found to trigger further turnover. At Southwest Airlines the secret of success is its people-first approach (Miles & Mangold, 2005). The employees are encouraged to take responsibilities for their acts and celebrate mistakes as well as achievements (Bunz & Maes, 1998). Despite being one of the most heavily unionized airlines, the culture of the firm and the dedication of the employees sees them through obstacles and challenges (Singh, 2002). 2.6 Singapore Airlines SIA has leant how to achieve service excellence in a cost-effective way. They have effectively aligned the functional strategies such as HR, marketing and operations with the business level strategy (Wirtz, Heracleous & Pangarkar, 2008). Consumers often see the front-line staff as the firm itself. Thus SIA has empowered its front-line staff to take decisions on customer service delivery and also act appropriately for service recovery. They lay emphasis on the recruitment, selection, training and motivation of the staff, despite which they have a high turnover of employees. They have a turnover rate of ten percent which includes both voluntary and directed attrition. Their selection process is rigorous and even after selection and training new staff is monitored for the first six months. Educated young people are attracted to the organization because of the perceived social status and glamour associated with the company. They seek initial experience with SIA before moving up the career ladder. They have the longest and the most comprehensive training in the industry lasting four months. Rewards and recognition serve as great motivators which include performance-based share options. It also includes interesting job content and variable pay components linked to individual staff contributions and the company’s financial performance. However, SIA also recognizes that recognition is a greater motivator than financial rewards. The difference lies in finding the right people and creating a service-oriented culture. 2.7 Theoretical framework Staff turnover may not necessarily be because of attraction to other jobs. It can be due to dissatisfaction with the present job (Hinkin & Tracey, 2000). In addition to pay, poor working conditions and poor quality of supervision also influence the intention to leave the job. SIA, being the preferred employer, selects through a rigorous process, trains and then also empowers the frontline staff to take action (Liu, 2010). While high empowerment leads to customer satisfaction, it also keeps the employee motivated, committed and engaged. People feel motivated and satisfied simply by knowing that they are doing a good job. SIA’s HR development strategies include building of high performance service delivery teams and empowerment. Thus, HR practices at SIA appear to be sound. According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs the basic needs have to be met first before the employees can look beyond. Gallagher and Einhorn (1976) also agree that as one needs is somewhat fulfilled the other needs become important and this influences his or her behaviour. Organizational stability is also linked to staff turnover (Gustafson, 2002). SIA has been more cost-effective than even the budget carriers while maintaining service excellence and focusing on continuous innovation. In addition, being awarded World’s Best Airline reward 21 out of 22 times is sufficient to establish its stability in the airline industry (Heracleous & Wirtz, 2010). Hence, the high turnover in this case cannot be associated with organizational stability. Thus, based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs the questionnaire would be developed to ascertain if needs of employees remain unfulfilled which prompts them to change their jobs. Chapter III Methodology Sampling and data collection 3.1 Measures The questionnaire includes demographic details because SAI focuses on recruiting fresh graduates. It would help to know if age and education have a bearing on turnover because according to Khatri et al high education results in low turnover. Data on nationality were not collected as this would increase the number of variables in the study. Job satisfaction is also a major issue that is associated with staff turnover. Job satisfaction involves satisfaction with pay, satisfaction with the nature of work and satisfaction with supervision (Khatri, Budhwar & Fern, 1999). It also includes organizational commitment and motivation to work. Thus the questionnaire has been framed with a view to measure these factors. Thus data on job satisfaction were also collected. 3.2 Sampling Since the focus of the study is the employees at SIA, no sampling strategy was applied. Informal permission was sought from the airline as this was a small study but nevertheless would benefit the airline. Often organizations overlook areas which are significant to the employees and the employees have no way to convey it to the management. While SIA thrives on its HR policies of empowerment and team performance, they may have not really taken employee opinion on certain issues while maintaining anonymity. Employees may be reluctant to express honestly for fear of losing their jobs till they have an alternative at hand. Thus, this focus group interview assured the respondents anonymity and only after informed consent was obtained, the interview was conducted. This was conducted only among the staff at SIA based in Singapore. After prior consent and appointment focus group interview of seven respondents were taken. Two such groups were interviewed over two days. The venue was the office canteen as the employees feel the most comfortable in their own environment. Focus group sessions make them comfortable and normally people who are reluctant to voice their opinions feel at ease amongst their peers/colleagues. While the sample may not be large it does give indication of the mindset that SIA employees carry against the organization and their job roles. Focus group interviews also allow modifying/amending questions as the interview evolves. Chapter IV Findings and Discussion Findings and discussion have not been segregated to avoid repetition. They are being discussed as data is presented. 4.1 Demographics Most of the respondents belonged to the age group 27-35 years out of which 60% were female respondents, the rest being male. They belonged to different departments and job roles with the organization. Almost 80% of the respondents have been with the airline for less than two years and the rest between two and five years. For most of them (85%) this was the first job and the highest level of education was Graduation. This confirms that SIA employs fresh graduates in order to mould them their way. Possibly, the other reason could be lower pay structures which is acceptable by fresh graduates and which may not attract the older employees. Most employees would like to work for SIA if given a chance (Xieli, 2011) but then why is the workforce at SIA comprise of the youngest workforce? Why do they always have a young workforce? Simply because they always need to recruit and they always recruit fresh graduates. They opt for fresh graduates without experience because the fresh graduates are willing to work at low salaries. While it is true that recruiting fresh graduate enables the airline to train them as per their requirement, it also points out that the airline must be doing so to keep its base salary low. Fresh graduates would be willing to work at a low base salary. SIA’s cost in salaries is only 16% compared to an industry average of 30 percent (Heracleous & Wirtz, 2010). To some extent SIA improved its retention ratios by laying emphasis on training and selection of employees and by aligning its training with business goals and objectives (Smith, 2001). However, the prospect of higher pay is the most obvious reason for high turnover (Advameg, 2012). This phenomenon is applicable to all levels of employees including the executives and the entry-level employees. 4.2 Job Satisfaction As far as the pay structure is concerned, 57% were somewhat satisfied, while 29% were unsatisfied and 14% dissatisfied. They pay structure was not associated with extra efforts or hard work. The employees worked because they enjoyed their work and that they were associated with the world’s most preferred airline. Thus the image of the organization positively impacts on employee commitment (Willie, Jayawardena & Laver, 2008). The nature of work was satisfactory and they did have autonomy to some extent. However, they did not carry long-term commitment towards the organization. Only 43% of the respondents admitted that their talents were properly utilized and the rest carried the feeling of being underutilized. This implies that their stringent selection process does not take into account the potential of the talent being recruited. While they may be suited for the organization, the potential of the candidates may be much higher which leaves them in a state of dissatisfaction. All of them admitted to being provided the necessary training and those that had been for over two years also received retraining if their roles were shifted. The cabin crew did find the job monotonous after some time and looked for new roles within the organization. This possibly could be the reason for low satisfaction with the nature of work. This also contradicts SIA’s claim that they provide motivation through varied job content (Fung, 2001). As far as relationship with the supervisor was concerned, not all were comfortable. While they were satisfied with the team work and team performance, their autonomy was suppressed by their supervisors. However, they did receive motivation through rewards and recognition if they performed out of the ordinary. Since job satisfaction culminates from satisfaction with pay, satisfaction with the nature of work and satisfaction with the supervision, the responses from the focus group respondents convey that the SIA employees do not have job satisfaction. Another important point that needs consideration is its phenomenal investments in training and development. It spends more than the industry average in training. Why does it need to do so? Because its employee turnover is so high it needs to regularly train and retrain. Job-hopping can adversely impact a firm’s competitiveness. Thus, instead of spending on high base salaries they have to frequently invest in training as they get fresh graduates every now and then. Overall, their investment in managing human resources remains the same as other companies. When the SIA employees are satisfied with the rewards and recognition and with the work environment, if pay is the main reason for turnover or for the staff leaving the organization, higher pay can be looked into by the organization. They do pay lower than industry average and it has also been confessed by the employees that they are attracted to SIA simply because of their repute as the preferred employer and the most preferred airline by customers. However, the respondents also confessed that they are attracted for the level of training and learning opportunity only to find themselves a better job in a few years. They put up with the low pay but only till they feel equipped to find themselves better pay packets. When asked if they would continue to work at SIA if they received better monetary compensation, almost unanimously they agreed that they would do so provided they also received fair career growth. When asked about change of sector for better pay, most expressed that they did not have loyalty for the sector and they could shift to any other organization in the service sector since they had gathered extensive experience in the service industry. The arguments thus reveal two main reasons for turnover at SIA. These include low pay, lower than industry average and lack of career progression. However, it cannot be concluded that younger employees are more likely to leave the organization or more educated employees are more likely to switch over to another job. However, since they have worked for a few years and gathered on-the-job experience, they felt they were ready to move on. Thus, the number of years of experience is certainly related to turnover. This suggests that with experience employees expect enhanced wages and with experience this can be the most important motivator. While work environment and recognition can be great motivators, as people grow older they need to shoulder greater responsibilities in terms of marriage or parents to look after. At this stage nothing can compensate for higher wages and hence monetary considerations become important. While SIA does offer attractive bonuses, these come at the end of the year and the employees would not know what they would be receiving. Regular and monthly wages hold importance as responsibilities increase. Hence if the level of income is high the turnover intention would decrease. Once the turnover intention decreases the organization can expect better performance from the employees as the mind would focus on the job and responsibilities instead of looking for better opportunities. However, SIA also need to take note of the fact that apart from satisfaction with pay, satisfaction with the nature of job is also important to have a committed workforce. Chapter V Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Conclusion Employee turnover or labour turnover has been the concern of organizations in most sectors but there is no universally accepted reason why employees chose to leave. Sound human resource practices have been found to be responsible for low turnover. Singapore Airlines takes pride in its HR policies but employee turnover at SIA is high. With the aim to evaluate the cause for high turnover at SIA, three objectives were set in Chapter I. After extensive literature review on the theories and subject, the methodology was explained and primary data collected through focus group interviews. All the three objectives have been achieved. The first objective was to evaluate the HR policies of other airlines and organizations in the service sector. This was achieved through secondary data and the study revealed that Southwest Airlines is amongst the best in the sector as they have an employee-first approach. On the other hand, BA suffered because they lacked a human-asset approach to business. In the Greek tourism industry staff turnover is beyond the control of the management which suggests that bad organizational and HR management is responsible for high turnover. The second objective was to determine whether job satisfaction is positively associated with employee turnover. The study finds that job satisfaction is positively related to high staff turnover. Job satisfaction includes satisfaction with pay, satisfaction with the nature of work and satisfaction with supervision. At SIA, employees have expressed dissatisfaction with the pay structure, with the supervision. The third objective was to evaluate the motivation techniques that SIA employs. SIA employs several methods to keep the staff motivated. Regular training, recognition and rewards and a variable pay structure linked to individual staff contribution. While the staff at SIA is motivated and committed to work with SIA, they take pride in being a part of SIA, after certain tenure of work with the organization they are ready to move on for better prospects. Thus motivation and commitment, employee engagement, and rewards and recognition work only when the basic needs are satisfied. This conforms to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs which states that the esteem needs and other higher level needs surface only when the physiological needs are satisfied. Tenure has hence been found to be positively linked with staff turnover. As they progress in their career they expect and feel they deserve better base wages. Their need increases with age as they have added responsibilities. SIA appears to have overlooked this prospect and focused on keeping the employees motivated and committed. 5.2 Recommendations for future research This study has limitations because the respondents were only from the Singapore office. Due to time and budgetary constraints the number of respondents were kept small although they forma representative group. To gain further insight, the study could collect data on the nationality as diversity also impacts turnover. People from different cultural backgrounds give preference to different factors and hence the variables for the study could be increased. References Advameg. (2012): ‘ EMPLOYEE TURNOVER’. Reference for Business. Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Eco-Ent/Employee-Turnover.html#b Barlow, G.L. (2002): ‘Putting a price on Staff Turnover -a case study’. Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://www.pomsmeetings.org/ConfProceedings/001/Papers/PER-02.4.pdf Bontis, N. and Fitz-enz, J. (2002): ‘Intellectual Capital ROI: a causal map of human capital antecedents and consequents’, Journal of Intellectual Capital, 3 (3), 223-247 Buick, I. and Thomas, M. (2001): ‘Why do middle managers in hotels burn-out? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 13 (6), 304-309 Bunz, U.K. and Maes, J.D. (1998): ‘Learning excellence: Southwest Airlines’ approach’. Managing Service Quality, 8 (3), 163-169 Chalkiti, K. and Sigala, M. (2010): ‘Staff turnover in the Greek tourism industry A comparison between insular and peninsular regions’. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 22 (3), 335-359 Deerey, M. (2008): ‘Talent management, work-life balance and retention strategies’. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 20 (7), 792-806 Delery, J.E., Gupta, N., Shaw, J.D., Jenkins, G.D. and Ganster, M.L. (2000): ‘Unionization, compensation and Voice Effects on Quits and Retention’, Industrial Relations, 39 (4). Dermody, M.B., Young, M. and Taylor, S.L. (2004): ‘Identifying Job Motivation Factors of Restaurant Servers: Insight for the Development of Effective Recruitment and Retention Strategies’. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 5 (3), 1-15. DiPietro, R.B., Thozhur, S.M. and Milman, A. (2007): ‘Hourly Employee Retention Factors in the United Kingdom Quick Service Restaurant Industry’. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 10 (4), 49-61. Freeman, R.B. (1998): ‘War of the models: Which labor market institutions for the 21st century?’ Labour Economics, 5, 1–24 Fung, M.L. (2001): ‘Customer Experience Management’. Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://www.gccrm.com/eng/content_details.jsp?contentid=2119&subjectid=101 Gallagher, W.E. and Einhorn, H.J. (1976): ‘Motivation Theory and Job Design’. The Journal of Business, 49 (3), 358-373. Gustafson, C.M. (2002): ‘Employee turnover: a study of private clubs in the USA’. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality, 14 (3), 106-113 Heracleous, L. and Wirtz, J. (2010): ‘Singapore Airlines’ Balancing Act. July–August 2010’, Harvard Business Review, 145 Hinkin, T.R. and Tracey, J.B. (2000): ‘The Cost of Turnover: Putting a Price on the Learning Curve’. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 41 (14), 14-22. Hogan J.J. (1992): ‘Turnover and What to Do About It’. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 33 (40), 40-46 Hoover’s Company Profile. (2012): Singapore Airlines Limited. Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://www.answers.com/topic/singapore-airlines#Labour Khatri, N. Budhwar, P. and Fern, C. (1999): ‘EMPLOYEE TURNOVER: BAD ATTITUDE OR POOR MANAGEMENT?’ Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/nbs/sabre/working_papers/12-99.pdf Ledwidge, J. (2007): ‘British Airways: the case for a human makeover’. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT INTERNATIONAL DIGEST, 15 (5), 7-10 Liu, A. (2010): ‘Crew Resource Development Strategy in SIA’ (Singapore International Airline). Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:human-resource-development-in-singapore-internation Madsen, T.L. Mosakowaski, E. and Zaheer, S. (2002): ‘The Dynamics of knowledge flows: human capital mobility, knowledge retention and change’. Journal of Knowledge Management, 6 (2), 164-176 Miles, S.J. and Mangold. W.G. (2005): ‘Positioning Southwest Airlines through employee branding’. Business Horizons, 48, 535—545 Shukla, T. and Thiyagarajan, A. (2011): ‘Mint Series | Skills deficit clips airlines’ wings’. Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://www.livemint.com/2011/07/18201024/Mint-Series--Skills-deficit-c.html Singh, P. (2002): ‘Strategic Reward Systems at Southwest Airlines’. Compensation Benefits Review, 34, 28 Smith, G.P. (2001): ‘Here Today, Here Tomorrow - Transforming Your Workforce from High-Turnover to High-Retention’ . The CEO Refresher. Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://www.refresher.com/!heretoday.html Spreitzer, G. and Korath, C. (2012): ‘Creating Sustainable Performance’. Spotlight on Happiness. January-February 2012, Harvard Business Review, 93 Willie, P.A., Jayawardena, C. and Laver, B. (2008): ‘Attracting and retaining quality human resources for Niagara’s hospitality industry’. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 20 (3), 293-301 Wirtz, J., Heracleous, L. and Pangarkar, N. (2008): ‘Managing human resources for service excellence and cost effectiveness at Singapore Airlines’. Managing Service Quality, 18 (1), 4-19 Xieli, L. (Jan 25, 2011): ‘Employer Branding. Most Desired Companies To Work For’. Retrieved online 14 January 2012 from http://www.marketing-interactive.com/news/24275 Appendix A Focus Group Interview Questions 1. Age 2. Gender 3. Tenure with the organization 4. Department 5. Level of education 6. Is this your first job? 7. Did you receive adequate training before being given responsibilities? 8. Job Satisfaction a. Pay satisfaction – very satisfied, somewhat satisfied, unsatisfied, dissatisfied. b. Does the pay structure encourage hard work? Yes/No c. Nature of work – satisfactory/not satisfactory d. Freedom to act/suggest – Yes/No e. Proper utilization of my talents – Yes/No f. Do you feel comfortable with your supervisor? Yes/No g. Is supervision encouraging/discouraging? 9. Would you exert extra effort towards the growth of the organization? 10. Are you happy to be working at SIA? Please answer beyond Yes/No. 11. Would you change jobs for higher pay/better working conditions/career progression? 12. Do you have intention to change job in the next few months? 13. How has your experience with working at SIA – in terms of empowerment/motivation? 14. Do you receive due recognition for your efforts? 15. Have you ever encountered any situation where you needed to take independent decision? 16. Would you like to work within the sector or change sector? Read More