Review of the Literature on Quality Education - Essay Example

?Chapter 2 – Literature review The literature review covers a broad range of topics related to education and professional development. The overridingintention is to develop a perspective on the nature of education as a means of determining what constitutes appropriate professional development. The review then considers barriers to this development process. The literature review begins with a general perspective on the nature of quality education. It then considers specific development measures proposed by theorist Danielson (2000, 2002), and the administrative pushback they receive. Finally, two sections examine the theories of Hallinger and Kantamara (2003) and Bolom and Turner (2003). The objective of this literature review is to critically analyze the report whilst keeping the dissertation's objective, identified problems and aim or research questions as a guide. Further, the need for further research from new questions that will arise from this review will justify the need of the dissertation on the subject of why individuals have difficulties participating in staff development. Section I - Quality Education The fundamental question asked concerns education in the 21st century and challenges both future appropriateness of the educational system and its delivery. In reality, the 21st century is something we know very little about, as we are only just 10 years into this century and the new millennium. The future is unknown and therefore one can only forecast, project and extrapolate as to what might be, based on what is already know. Ideology in education is an evolutionary process. Dominant views on education have influenced teachers for decades. For example, goals to provide equal opportunities and use of young people as a resource for the nation were initiated in from post-war years up to the early 1970s as part of economic expansion. Similarly, the Plowden Report supported child-centred teaching methods to focus on the unique development of each child, becoming known as ‘progressivism’. This ideology is Liberal Romanticism, which also values diversity and individual difference. In the early to mid-1970s, standards were said to have regressed (‘Black Papers’) because curriculum design and organization lacked rigor. In response, the ideology of Educational Conservatism was introduced which emphasized “the transmission of established social values, knowledge and culture through a subject-orientated approach,” as stated by Pollard & Tann (1990 p 40). The good teacher would reflect on such ideologies and extract ‘the wheat from the chaff’ to improve his own approach to teaching. While such pragmatic values seem promising in theory, the reality of the situation is such that teacher training and curriculum development must develop more objective means of understanding. While the good teacher should have a thirst for continual improvement, this best occurs within an objective framework. As previously mentioned, I personally self-assess my own performance at the end of each lesson. If a lesson has been observed or I have been using classroom assistants, I actively seek their constructive criticism, as I want to be become not only a good teacher but a first class one. Such self-reflexivity is best supplemented with the university model. Pollard & Tann (1990 p 14) state “practical experience and related discussions at university seem to be more powerful influences for PGCE students on their professional development than their subject studies.” In attempting to become a first class teacher, I found this to be consistently accurate. I am always willing to learn from experienced professionals and lectures. When not teaching, I use the time to observe others to learn valuable experiences. I found my university workshops an excellent source of ideas and an excellent forum to share and learn the best practices. The question to be asked is not “what is the reason for education?” but “is it a good education?” A good education should seek to “maximize both equality of opportunity and a far greater degree of equality of outcome” as Hill (2004 p 11) states. I concur with Hill in this regard, especially as it highlights the fact that education is about achieving an outcome, although we do not have the entirely same understanding of the ultimate goal. For me, a good education is clearly the one that delivers a good outcome that allows students access to achieving their potential. I don’t believe it is the role of education to define the values and structure of the social order (there are outside entities and processes for this), but rather to see to it that these agreed upon values and potentials are achieved to their greatest capacity. The crux of the matter still lies in what is the desired outcome of education. I believe that there are many desired outcomes of education required to satisfy a hierarchy of needs. While at the post-secondary level increased emphasis must be placed on industrial strategic learning, I believe that the secondary level must continue to occupy itself with the more fundamental values and skills that inform our culture, including technology. I also believe that the primary need for education is about our most basic instinct, that of survival. It is a well-worn cliche that ‘life is a jungle’ but the reality is that it is true and as a nation the greatest need is for our society to survive and be safeguarded both now and in the future. We now need to survive both at home, in Europe and in the in global economy with global influences. The latter will have massive impacts as the recent collapse in the banking world recently demonstrated. The nation needs a high quality workforce to compete in these world markets; this is why the education system and National Curriculum are Government led. As it is inevitably linked to market forces and the shifting public values, education has to readily accommodate change. To produce good outputs, the educational system must recognize that we are teaching in the 21st century and in the age of communication, technology, diversity, inclusivity and constant change. It is the same model I proposed for the good teacher and is equally relevant. To deliver the resources and institute the public’s values, government has the responsibility to provide a good framework to achieve the high level aims and objectives required of our education system via policies, advice, guidance and the National Curriculum. It must then enable and empower the good teacher in the classroom to deliver these values and objectives to the best of his ability. As government tailors policies and curriculum for the good of the nation, the teacher delivers each lesson for the good of the individual. Section II - Teacher Evaluations One of the primary professional development perspectives has been proposed by Danielson (2000). This section of the literature considers Danielson’s theories as they relate to the broader professional development concerns of the dissertation. While teacher evaluations are traditionally a dreaded and much maligned part of the profession for teachers, Danielson’s system has a number of elements that considerably benefit teachers and aid in their development. One such instance is that Danielson’s (2000) evaluation framework places increased emphasis on self-assessment. This benefits the teacher as Danielson (2000 p 24) states “principles of adult learning show that when people use self-assessment and self-directed inquiry in professional development, they are more likely to sustain their learning.” Even when administrative officials are involved in the evaluation process, Danielson’s (2000) system calls for an increased emphasis, not on restrictive or judgmental evaluative measures, but on a process designed to increase teacher development. Indeed, in real world analysis this element of Danielson’s system has proven qualitatively accurate (Avalos 2011). As Danielson continues her articulation of the teacher evaluation process she distinguishes a number of levels of specification designed to elucidate what constitutes a successful evaluation. While an in-depth registry of these specifications constitutes one of Danielson’s (2000) entire books, some of the specific categories include: Levels of Specificity, Feedback Options, and Levels of Performance. These categorical specifications function to ensure that the evaluation process is not only thorough but beneficial for professional development. Indeed, if there is one unifying theme throughout Danielson’s (2000) writing on the evaluation process, it is that the teacher is an active participant and not merely the receptacle of criticism.   Even as Danielson (2000) has never been linked directly with the inclusion of merit pay among teaching professionals, her teaching framework has often been proposed as a core structural element to instituting teacher merit pay. In these regards the varying levels of Danielson’s (2000) teacher evaluations would be utilized to determine the extent to which teachers are sufficiently living up to professional standards. While there have been a broad variety of push-backs levied against merit-pay, there are a number of objections that can be directly linked to the incorporate of Danielson’s (2000) merit-pay based system into the equation. These objections include an overall lack of autonomy. Danielson’s (2000) proscriptive measures have a number of distinct components and categories that increase administrative involvement and place the act of instruction more in a set of abstract principles than in the organic and holistic interactions that occur within the classroom environment. In the overt promotion of such components, the act of instruction and learning is given over less to the teaching professional and more to Danielson’s (2000) standards. While Danielson’s (2000) framework includes components that emphasize the importance of teacher involvement, her overriding framework paradoxically could, in regards to merit pay, be used to restrict these measures.     Section III - Cultural Difference This section starts with a continuation of a previous research study I undertook which focused on the differences in culture. Hallinger and Kantamara (2003) supply a strong example when comparing the culture of Thailand with western cultures. Being raised in the west, I have come to realize that the individuals from western culture feel that they have a right to know things, believe that they should have a voice, and think they have a right to question. Hallinger and Kantamara (2003 p 118) state, “In western cultures, people expect greater equality in social relations regardless of formal status and act accordingly… In a western context, this does not imply disagreement. Rather it reflects the staff’s (culturally) legitimated belief that they have a right to know why they are expected to do something, that they should have a voice in school decisions.” Here Hallinger and Kantamara (2003) reflect my experiential perspectives on the question. While such research is entirely qualitative, it does seem that there is a general research consensus the western cultural values demonstrate a greater propensity towards these modes of intellectual consideration in comparison with Eastern society. While Kantamara falls short of indicating potential reasons for this cultural disparity, it appears fairly certain that a deeper understanding of these differences can be found through sociological research that considers the deeper structural and educational aspects of these cultures. In some regards, research has advanced theoretical notions within this categorical understanding. Hallinger and Kantamara (2003) further discuss that the Thais, internally, would like to question but because of cultural, high-power distance, they are unable to do so. High-powered distance is defined by Hallinger and Kantamara (2003 p 117) as “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions an dorganisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.” Moreover, in my observations at the school I work at in Bangkok, Thailand, it appears that the Thai staff is not interested in asking any questions at all that challenges staff developmental progress. I have observed that they would prefer not to do anything that creates issues and problems. Hofstede (1991) addressed this as harmony. He states that the Thais have an ingrained desire for harmony. Moreover, the Thai staff working at the language school in Bangkok, Thailand are not from high levels of society, meaning that they are not well educated and do not come from a family that would innately be full of goals and determination to develop. My observations of people in the past few decades lead me to attribute many things to a sort of cognitively-learned behavior. Further observations as a visitor to the country has brought my attention to the other levels of Thai society, which have different work ethics because of their education level and alternative experiences from members lower on the social scale. The school that I work at is a costly institution, and the students that come to the school generally have a lot of money. Many of them are successful, with parents educated overseas in western countries, come from wealthy families, or even well to do families, and have gone to international schools which impact their life due to the environment. Demas (2001) demonstrates clearly how the right education can impact even the most troubled individuals. In these regards, education is understood as an enlightening element of the human condition that adds culture and perspective to individuals’ lives. Demas’ (2001) findings lead us to see that education functions to imbue individuals with goals and added motivation for structured pursuits. In these regards, it can function to improve general wellbeing. Motivation is also an important factor to consider in relation to the larger organizational efficiency. Regardless of levels of society, if psychological theories are used correctly and the organization or management can find what motivates the individual, then the individual can be driven to give effort to the goals given to them by the organization. The research of Hallinger and Kantamara (2003) shows an amazing conclusion where some Thai schools became successful in enforcing new policies after having the staff volunteer verses being forced to participate and accept the new policies. This gives contrast to the above mentioned where it was implied that the lower classes were seen to be not interested in participation. A positive change will be more likely if the individuals themselves are involved in learning, developing, and any change the management wishes to enforce or add. What is the cultural perspective? Culture plays a big part in staff development. From my findings from observations of individuals, I have come to learn that cultures in Asia act and think differently from western individuals. These differences add to the challenges of staff development. Problems found in the technological perspective are related to the cultural perspective. From a cultural perspective, there are many challenges when imposing innovations. In the Asian culture there is a great deal of respect for the elderly and people of authority. This particular perspective is one that is quite similar all over East and South East Asia. My experience in both China and Thailand as a teacher as well as a tourist to most of the countries in the region support my claim. Hallinger and Kantamara’s (2001) study clearly displays how the power of culture with regards to respecting the elderly and people of authority is strong in Thailand. As discovered by Hallinger and Kantamara (2001), Thais do not question in general in order to saving face, not to embarrass another. For example, in the work place if any individual had some innovative ideas to share at a meeting, it might not be mentioned to save their boss from losing face and avoid any possible chance of disrespecting their boss. Hallinger and Kantamara (2001 p 118) say, “Teachers greng jai their principal when they politely accept orders – for example, to implement a new curriculum or teaching method – even if they do not understand or agree with it. A less experienced or younger member on a team may refrain from contributing new ideas at a meeting because she or he feels greng jai towards senior colleagues who have already spoken. Or a young supervisor may greng jai a veteran teacher and fail to provide corrective feedback on weaknesses in class instruction.” This display of greng jai is similarly seen in China, including at the school where I worked. With this hurdle, how can it be possible for innovation to be put forward? The study found three schools that successfully put forward innovation; however, they were a fraction of the schools that were approached. One of the principals involved used psychology to involve staff into the experiment by having the teacher’s volunteer verses forcing them. Hallinger and Kantamara (2001) discovered and discussed how the teachers would simply smile and say they would do as they were told, but disregarded the policy; this is confusing because the Thai culture expresses obedience to figures of authority, however, it does not to always happen after the face to face momentary compliance. This lack in obedience to a new idea shows us that if a teacher does not agree with the innovation, regardless of which culture, it will not be effective; as they must be a supporter of the innovation in order for that innovation to occur. Head of Department’s Role in teaching and learning reviewed From a previous study, here is a second review of Bolam and Turner’s (2003) article, ‘Heads of Department of Secondary Schools; Improvement of teaching and learning,’ which focuses on middle managers dominant role in improving teaching and learning and that they have important instructional leadership roles. This relates to the aim of the dissertation because it highlights some of the other duties that HoD’s have to deal with besides having to deal with managing the teachers The review of this chosen literature reflects on the need that teachers participation in staff development are needed. Some of the methods of HoD’s in improving teaching include staff development which require the teachers (individuals) cooperation. Bolam and Turner discuss the importance of the Head’s of Department (HoD) as important roles in the improvement of learning. The study looked at methods used by HoD’s in improving teaching and learning. Firstly, the methods they used for their research were through a questionnaire’s, which makes me unsure in the strength of their findings from my personal experience with uncertainties in using questionnaires. Secondly, their research included four subject areas, ten schools and forty HoD’s. They used practical observations that the HoD’s identified as improving teaching and learning. Bolam and Turner did follow up with triangulation interviews to cross check the HoD’s accounts and the fact that strict rules, regulations and confidentiality were adhered throughout the questionnaire research which makes their findings fairly convincing. My practical knowledge supports their belief that HoD’s can improve teaching and learning through particular methods of management. However, I am unconvinced about the two earlier studies that Bolam and Turner build their research on, (Sammons et al., 1995b Harris et al., 1995). The authors of these two studies felt that HoD’s displayed a central focus on improving teaching and learning and a student centered approach. Their research did not deal with the part played by HoD’s but only hypothesized that they exert considerable influence. Torrington and Weightman’s (1990) study of HoD’s claimed that they were somewhat disregarded in a “taken for granted” role. I feel that this may depend on the context and situation that the middle managers are in and possibly whether they are in secondary or primary education. Bolam and Turner (2003) refer to the survey carried out by Earley and Fletcher-Campbell (1989). The survey discussed the fact that HoD’s main managerial problem was the lack of time to properly manage their departments. Time is a big issue for middle managers as there never seems to be enough time to; run a class, plan, mark, review reports, deal with students, as well as organize; timetables, meetings, and PD, plus communicate and listen to teachers, parents, and students. Brown and Rutherford (1998) state that the head of department now has a very extensive set of responsibilities placed upon him/her. With this said, the need for teachers to participate in staff development becomes more apparent. Bolam and Turner’s (2003) main findings are ones that HoD’s use to develop good teaching and learning. The findings mentioned are regular meetings – Formal and Informal, 1:1, agree that the meetings are necessary to develop good teaching and learning, agree that representation is necessary to develop good teaching and Learning, working together and developing teamwork, and agree that these are necessary to develop good teaching and Learning. Without the participation in staff development and its need by the individuals (teachers), the challenge remains with the HoD. In conclusion, Bolam and Turner (2003) state that there are many models of leadership and effective leaders display a range of styles. I fully agree with this statement and believe it to be a very important proclamation from my experience as a head teacher. The head teacher before me did things differently, which supports their point that a range of style is found in different leaders. The findings of Bolam and Turner (2003) are generally convincing; I would have to agree that middle manager’s professional knowledge is mainly gathered through experience because I have observed that most things in life are learned on the job not in the classroom or from an article. The only doubt that I have about the article is the fact that I feel the evidence lacks proof, and the methods described by the HoD’s were beneficial in improving teaching and learning due to the lack of observing the methods in practice. However, I do consider that the researchers had particular time and resource constraints. I just am not completely convinced with their argument due to the weakness of the sample – 4 subject areas only researched, 10 schools and 40 HoD’s and the use of practical observations of the methods that the HoD’s identified as improving teaching and learning. The Role of Head’s of Department Reviewed A previous study I undertook examined Mercer and Ri’s (2006) article entitled, ‘The Role of Head of Department in Chinese Secondary Schools,’ expresses the author’s purpose to explore the role of the head of departments in secondary schools in China. This relates to the aims and objectives of the dissertation because the relationship of the importance of the middle management. The study and research was built on data that was collected from teachers and head teachers. The outcome was that there was a large gap between what they perceived of middle management responsibilities and what they would prefer. This contrasted with western schools to showed clear differences; culture differences were taken into account. Mercer and Ri (2006) said that there was a hierarchy and faithfulness that was considered a virtue. Strong cultural differences between the West and Asia, particularly China, should be critically noted due to the importance. The two cultures could be described as being fundamentally opposite. China – a totalitarian collective state, where the West is more of a democratic and individualistic society. This has a significant impact on the structure of school management – China a rigid hierarchy whereas in the West there is a move towards greater delegation of responsibilities. Indeed, in considering cultural development, Hadar & Brody (2010) follows Mercer and Ri (2006) in indicating the importance of considering hierarchy. Claims with regards to the role of HoD’s (in the West) growing due to an increase workload due to national curriculum, OFSTED visits, syllabus changes and the introduction of performance managements, which are not an issue in Asia language schools. This evidence supports the need for staff development. Regardless of that being an issue in Thailand or China at this point, one day when these countries evolve, they will become an issue. The extra work required by HoD’s in the West is an example of the importance of the individuals (teachers) participation in staff development in order to relieve the added responsibilities of HoD’s. The literature addresses how the aims and objectives of the schools are out of the control of HoD’s. In the literature, the heads themselves stated that they had a small say if any say concerning whole school aims and objectives; this is what I have observed in my role as a head teacher which impacts staff development if those aims and objectives are related to staff development. In discussing teaching and research groups, the authors explain that the teaching and research groups takeover many of the HoD’s responsibilities. This mimics the sharing leadership roles the West has been working towards. Since these groups are made up of teachers then it would be reasonable that the responsibilities are in good hands. By diluting the role of HoD’s this would give the HoD’s more time to focus on more important things and since he is a teacher himself, he would be participating in these groups and gets to share the workload and ideas in this way. “It is clear that the head of department now has a very extensive set of responsibilities placed upon him/her,” (Brown and Rutherford, 1998). “These responsibilities include teaching, coaching (e.g. modelling good classroom practice) and managing the department (i.e. as leading professionals).” This leads to the understanding that sharing duties may lead to a better performance in job because the HoD’s will not have so many things to take care of. The literature says that management is taken cared of by a committee in China. These committee’s include teacher reps, secretary of the school branch of the communist party and teaching deans. The administration committee takes care of day to day management. This is clearly Asia’s form of shared leadership but without the HoD being fully responsible. Basically the paper is saying that the role of the HoD is not really in existence and the method in China is a divided position where there are committees formed of teachers that take some of the HoDs role. The literature is limited on what the groups actually do or consist of as well as how effective their method works – it is not mentioned. The research in the article uses 4 secondary schools in NE China and how the staff perceive HoD’s role. There were three research questions asked. The answers were obtained by using 3 inter connected techniques; nominal group technique, interviews and questionnaires. The nominal group technique was used to make the questionnaires. They used 100 HoDs and out of the 100 questionnaires only 88 were usable. The questions of why only 88 usable is not explained. I have questions regarding the use of only the NE of China, why not different parts of the country. There could be a difference with one part of China to another. Also, the schools might have a larger volume of students which might make a difference in the results. The paper includes a chart showing the 4 major areas of responsibilities and was identified into two groups (teachers and HoD’s). A chart showed that the classroom teachers and the HoDs both agreed on the importance of the managerial role of the HoDs. The problem with interviews and questionnaires is obviously that the information could be incorrect or wrong or exaggerated even misleading. One might feel that because of the cultural position they are in, the process of change, especially with the decentralization of power from central governments, their method of school management and HoD’s responsibilities are on track and will change when the demand or right time arrives. The structure has been set for a long time and no one can really say how efficient the schools currently run in their current way. The article never mentioned any problems the Chinese school system had. Furthermore, Hadar & Brody (2010) indicate that structure within the Chinese school system in terms of efficiency is one of the elements that has been neglected in contemporary research trends. This paper continually reinforces the lack of HoD’s being researched for their contribution to the improvement of their role in improving teaching and learning. They insert a study on school management (Torrington & Weightman’s 1990) which says that the HoD’s position is taken for granted. Highlighted was the lack of time the HoDs had available to them to properly manage their departments. It was said that time was certainly likely to be a significant constraint on the way HoDs influenced teaching and learning since it limits their scope for observing and team teaching with departmental colleagues. This finding shows the need for participation of individuals in staff development because the HoD’s need all the cooperation they can get to maximize the time they do have. Finally, the literature concludes that China should review their thinking with regards to the role of the head of department. However, no one really can impose the Westerns ideas in China because it is not the same. There is a clear difference in the way that culture influences both the way of life which would be easy to relate with the way they run their schools. With extended experience in Thailand, I understand why the East Asians think and do things the way they do. On a cultural level, they are taught to respect their elders and obey people in a higher class and higher position than they are. So in the field of schooling, because of culture, this fact will not change until the culture changes or until there is a clear understanding that it is accepted in certain field such as a schooling system. Staff development dominance This section of the literature review examines who deserves to be dominant between the individual and the organization using systems developed by Hargreaves and Fullan (1992): skills and knowledge and self understanding. This section explores whether the individual or the organization is more dominant within the partnership. Starting with skills and knowledge, if we refer to action research, a very common research method done by teachers in the classroom to solve problems, we see that the teacher can be capable of assessing his or her own classroom situations. The teacher is in his or her own classroom environment daily and is able to observe their problems and do tests and trials in order to improve any situations in learning. Action research shows us that a teacher can quite easily dominate skills and knowledge development as well as maintain a level of quality in the classroom. In Hallinger and Kantamara’s (2003) study in Thailand, the partnership of skills and knowledge was concluded by describing that the individual had to definitely be a part of the partnership and furthermore feel that they are actually dominate in the partnership mainly because of their close relationship to the students, which may give the individuals, or teachers, the feeling that they need to be a part of the decisions towards their students in order for compliance. This gives the dominance to the individuals; the support of the organization is also very important in the partnership. The focus in the area of developing skill and knowledge of the partnership section above indicated that support and understanding was the key for success when it came to the students, and it was mentioned that the students were the beneficiaries of successful partnership. The literature has supported the importance of skill and partnership (Taylor, Yates, Meyer & Kinsella 2011). Ultimately, in the development of self-understanding of the teachers, when bringing new policies or enforcing policies, it is believed that when the individual was encouraged to understand for themselves was when cooperation occurred. Avalos, B. (2011). Teacher professional development in Teaching and Teacher Education over ten years. Teaching & Teacher Education, 27(1), 10-20. Hadar, L., & Brody, D. (2010). From isolation to symphonic harmony: Building a professional development community among teacher educators. Teaching & Teacher Education, 26(8), 1641-1651 Taylor, M., Yates, A., Meyer, L. H., & Kinsella, P. (2011). Teacher professional leadership in support of teacher professional development. Teaching & Teacher Education, 27(1), 85-94. Read More