The American Policies that Shape Global Diplomacy - Research Paper Example

?The Perceived Effects of US Foreign Aid: the American Policies that shape Global Diplomacy Introduction Foreign aid refers to the varied economic, military, cultural and political assistance provided by a nation to another. Generally it is offered in the form of food assistance, agricultural aids and economic planning aids for the benefit of a poor foreign nation. Military assistance is provided by developed nations to the weaker ones in order to defend themselves from foreign military attacks or to find solutions for internal issues like domestic terrorist attacks, civil wars and communal riots. Natural calamities such as earth quakes, volcanic eruption, cyclones and tsunami necessitate the intervention of wealthy and powerful nations to support the suffering nations. The general characteristics of under developed countries such as low level of per capita income, savings and investment require foreign financial support for their economic development and a balanced growth of the world economy could be ensured by the effective foreign financial aid along with the development of the recipient nation. Foreign aid plays a key role in forming the foreign policy of developed nations as it helps to build better relationships with other countries which in turn benefit the donor nations in expanding their markets. Tied foreign aid explains the benefit of donor nations as it compels the recipient nation to purchase certain goods from the donor country alone (Reasons for Foreign Aid). Most of the developed nations have been contributing to support the less developed countries and these aids have changed the foreign and domestic policies of different nations .The United States is the supreme player among all the supporters and hence it is important to have a look at the perceived effects of US foreign aid and the American policies that shape global diplomacy. This paper is an attempt to answer the question “How is US foreign Aid perceived and how does this shape international diplomatic policies?” and the paper seeks to analyse the effect of US foreign aid in shaping the foreign and domestic policies of the recipient countries in such a way that it support the US to achieve certain diplomatic goals. Review of literature There have been a number of studies carried out so as to analyse the effects of foreign aid. There are experts who believe that foreign aids benefit only to the donor nations which allows a dependant development to the recipient countries and one could also find literature which expose the harmful effects of foreign aid and studies which proves that foreign aids benefit both the recipient and donor nations. Foreign aid and policies of United States Daniel Ehrenfeld unearths the effectiveness of foreign aids on the recipient nations and for him bilateral aids such as offered by the United States to Egypt are so “structured to recap gains for the benefactor and not for humanitarian purposes” (Ehrenfeld ) whereas multilateral aids catered better to the development process of the South. The author also purports that the presence or absence of political and civil rights in the recipient country play a pivotal role in the effectiveness of such foreign aids. Even though there have been a number of foreign aid initiatives from the Soviet Union, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency (UNRRA), the World Bank, or the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the 1950s marked the US hegemony in aid distribution. The foreign aids aim at the promotion of economic development and the welfare of the recipient state and such foreign aids have been proved to be extremely beneficial to the less developed nations. It has often been argued that foreign aid “closes the gap between investment and domestic savings, overcoming shortages of capital and low levels of skills, it supplements export earnings to finance imports generally and capital goods more specifically, and helps to close the foreign exchange gap” (Ehrenfeld ). The United States’ foreign policy seeks to offer foreign aids with a view to promote democracy and human rights even though one can never disregard the strategic importance of the U.S foreign aid to many nations including Egypt. Egypt’s proximity with Israel has also been pointed out by many as a sound reason for US aid to the nation. Thus, one can observe that the United States’ financial aids to Egypt are also governed by political, economic, commercial, diplomatic and strategic interests. As Ehrenfeld has rightly pointed out, “political and strategic motivations such as security goals, access to military bases and strategic natural resources, diplomatic ties and prestige have been prominent features of aid policy for the governments of states” and these motivations are evident in the United States’ foreign aid to Egypt too (Ehrenfeld). Foreign aids facilitates free trade, promotes exports and foreign investment in the recipient nations and these appear to be mutually beneficial to both the recipient and donor nations. The nation’s foreign policies and national interests or public opinion play a pivotal role in determining the nature and depth of foreign aids. The United States also offers tied aid to Egypt with a view to promote export industry and export sales to Egypt. US financial aid is the key instrument of the US foreign policy in which modifications are carried out every year in the purpose, size and composition of the program. The terrorist attack of 9/11 had immense impact on the foreign policy making of the United States government thereafter and the US modified their national security strategy in 2002 by adding the objective of global development along with diplomacy and defence. Foreign policy making of United States The US foreign aid programs are formulated on the basis of certain diplomatic goals such as prevention of war and maintenance of peace. Many developing countries demand support from the US for their prosperity and security, and US occupies the supreme position in the reach of global engagement among the countries which provide foreign aid around the world. US maintain a diplomatic association with more than 180 nations all over the world by means of providing military and financial aids. Special attention is given to the foreign policy making of United States and the President, departments of states, treasury, defence and several intelligence agencies take part in the process and the United State Congress has its responsibilities to form these policies on the basis of the constitutional laws, custom and tradition of United States (Dumbrell & Barrett 33). Reasons for foreign aid Various motivations and objectives could be observed if the history of US foreign aid is considered. The reconstruction of the Europe after the World War II was the objective of the Marshall Plan which was in effect during the period 1948-1951 and during the 1980s the United State’s foreign aid policies were focusing on the cutback of Cold War tensions and experts believe that the financial and military supports provided by the US to newly formed nations of Africa Asia and Latin America had an objective of the prevention of Soviet influence on them. Foreign aid policies of the United States observed a change after the fall of Soviet Union in 1991 and more importance were given to regional issues like the transition of newly formed states of collapsed Soviet Union and Eastern Europe to democracy, Middle East peace initiatives and the illegal production and trafficking of drugs in the Andes. But the terrorist attack on United States on 9/11brought about drastic transitions in their foreign policy making and the global war on terrorism became an integral part of the US foreign policy (Tarnoff 1). Financial assistance provided by the United States to various nations have supported many countries across the world and there are so many bilateral and multilateral organizations associated mainly with the United States with an objective to provide financial aid to many needy nations. Some of these agencies carry out similar activities whereas some others share decision making on individual aid programs. Table 1.1 provides a fair idea regarding such agencies (Lancaster 31). Bilateral Organizations Multilateral Organizations International Organizations and Programs Agency for International Development Peace Corps Inter American Foundation African Development Foundation Other US government agencies World Bank Inter American Development Bank Asian Development Bank and Fund African Development Bank and Fund European Bank for Reconstruction and Development North American Development Bank Economic Cooperation and Development Bank for the Middle East and North Africa United nations Development Program UN Children’s Fund International Fund for Agricultural development UN High Commissioner for Refugees World Food program UN Population Fund Food and Agriculture Organization Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Inter American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture World Health Organization Pan American Health Organization UN Environment program Montreal Protocol Fund Global Environment Facility Organization of American States Development Assistance program Even though these agencies possess certain general characteristics it is possible to differentiate these agencies. The support programs of bilateral agencies are influenced by the leadership responsibilities of the United States in certain foreign countries. On the other hand multilateral agencies as in the case of World Bank forward their financial assistance mainly for the development purposes of the weaker nations (Lancaster 31). American assistance to Egypt Protection of international peace and security in the Middle East was the major motivating force behind the US foreign aid towards Egypt. Jon B Alterman gives a detailed description of US aid to Egypt during the period 1952-1956. Even though the financial assistance by the US to Egypt was considerably small immediately after the Egyptian revolution, it turned in to millions of dollars in the following years. The aid program has experienced a pace in growth as both the Egypt and the US were focusing on the implementation of more brilliant programs to enhance the cooperation between them and one of such steps was the formation of EARIS (Egyptian-American Rural Improvement Service) which was formed as a model for cooperative land resettlement. US and Egyptian governments committed $10 million and $15 million respectively to their newly established cooperative service with an objective of creating a new farmer class in Egypt. Even though Americans consider the program as partially successful, the Egyptians consider it as one of their most successful land reclamation programs ever (Alterman xviii). Egypt has received $17 billion in the form of various financial aids from the US during the period 1974-1990. Economic support Fund was the channel through which a major portion of the financial aid has been made and more than 50 percent of the grand has been utilized by different developmental projects (Quandt 41). The statistical data for the U.S aid to Egypt from 1946 to 2009 clearly shows the range of economic and military assistance offered to Egypt over the years. The period from 1977 to 1980 marked the highest range of economic and financial assistance provided by the United States. However, from 1980 onwards one could find a gradual decrease in the financial and military aid given to Egypt. While the economic assistance provided to Egypt in 1983 amounted more than 4000 US dollars, it was reduced to $2000 by the year 2006 (see Appendix 1). Similarly, the military assistance during this period also met with considerable decrease. On the other hand, it is quite observable that from 2006 to 2010 there is a slight increase in the foreign military financing (which stands between 1200-1400 US dollars) whereas there is a considerable decrease in the economic support fund (see appendix 2). Similarly, the data for the U.S. Aid through the Economic Support Fund (ESF) shows that the United States offers foreign assistance to Egypt for such purposes as the preservation of peace and security, protection of the environment, ensuring democracy, human rights and governance, providing health care, education, and social services and for the economic development of the nation (see Appendix 3). Among these, the fund for economic development and the financial aid for education and social services assume the top priorities. It is no wonder that the United States assumes the second position (with 182.74 million US dollars) among the top twenty development donors to Egypt in 2009 (see Appendix 4). Motivating Factors for U.S Aid to Egypt The question as to what motivates the U.S government to offer such huge amounts of financial aids to Egypt deserves attention in this regard. America’s foreign aids are characterized by its foreign strategy of promoting national and international peace and security. Among the major recipients of American aid Egypt stands as second after Israel. An analytical study makes one curious over the generosity of America over a country that has been ruled by an ‘undemocratic’ president over a period of 30 years. On the other hand, ever since the history of America as a nation it had taken advantages on the weaker side of its agents, or nations. The war with Iran and the dominance of America in Kuwait make America a firm holder over the wealth of the nations here. Around 2 billion dollars Egypt receives per year on military aid. Of course most of American aid is going for military development and security. Appendix 5 clearly demonstrates the nature of American aid to Egypt. In considering both the military and economic aids of America to Egypt it can be seen that the amount spent for military purposes remains steady from 1998 t0 2010 whereas the amount for economic growth in Egypt has gone down in the previous years (see Appendix 5). The years 2009 and 2010 witnessed a noticeable decline in granting financial aid to economic sectors even though the amount is higher if other states are considered. This marks America’s concern for military security and support from Egypt. From the chart it is very clear that America is brooding over its own interests than that of the targeted nation. US foreign policy has been seen as a different one from 2000. There are many who argue that America has several hidden interests in giving financial aid to Egypt. Even though in the outset these are not mentioned a person who evaluates the American nature of supporting other economies can very well find out the ‘vested interests’ of the world’s super power. Political interests: The generosity of America over Egypt has certain political goals to fulfil. Many hidden agenda are there in its aid to Egypt. America is looking forward for the political stability in Egypt. Even though America had difference of opinion over the Presidential election in 2005, it has been the main agenda of America from the period of Bush to secure political stability over Egypt. In a sense it can be understood that America is a country that has been cherishing for the democracy in other states. If it had been giving aid to a country that was ruled by a President namely, Hosni Mubarak for over 30 years from 1981 to February, 2011 and whose rule is termed as undemocratic and despotic, there are sound grounds for critics to doubt the nation’s good will. In the outset America has stated as it has been aiding Egypt for securing political stability and peaceful relations with Israel. Frank S. Robinson, in this respect, states: “Our aim, instead, is a world free democratic nation that respect human rights; promote economic integration, trade, and growth; and cooperate peacefully with one another” (Robinson 163). Further the writer says that America has been trying to establish these democratic goals in Egypt too. It is trying to make peace in the Middle East and it has given freedom to the political prisoners in Egypt. The political interests of America over the country to keep it secure and calm and not to affect America’s ally Israel may be one of the reasons for its financial aids to Egypt. Economic Interests: America supplies financial aid to Egypt mainly through its Economic Support Fund (ESF) and Foreign Military Fund (FMF). In considering these two America has got many economic goals in the land of Egypt. William J. Burns in his book Economic Aid and American Policy toward Egypt 1955-1981 says, “For American policymakers who perceived that Egypt’s “greatest weakness was its dependence on Western help to maintain the pace of economic development,” economic assistance appeared to be an ideal means of developing American influence in Egypt” (Burns 1). The interests of America to gain a favourable dominance over Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser in the beginning and later of Hosni Mubarak had a clear cut economic agenda. America expects to invest in the soil of Egypt with its economic policies. The gas reserves of Egypt bring much income in return and America’s taking hold of such reserves or the collaboration of Egypt-American projects in turn makes much return for America. There are many who believe that the main objective of America is making Egypt a battle place for America and creating a hold on the economy of this country. Commercial interests: America wanted to take advantage of the Suez Canal and so it had started giving aid to Egypt. Suez Canal was a passage for the Westerners to East, and America’s attempts to gain control over this has contributed much to controversy. It has been identified by the U.S government that “secure access to Middle Eastern oil became a major priority in the wake of the Second World War as automotive and industrial consumption increased” (Davies & Waldstein 220). The US was deeply involved with the issue as the government of Muhammad Mossadeq was overthrown by the US in 1953 and gained a subsequent dominance over the Iranian Oil production. Many factors contribute to the savouring nature of US for oil in the Middle East countries. America is the biggest consumer of oils in the world and it is one quarter of the total world consumption. As Burman observes, “the key to US overseas oil policy is to improve the security of supply by diversifying the sources from which it gets oil.” (Burman 30). America has been attempting to make close relationships with Saudi Arabia, which has the largest reserve of oil in the world. American attempts in overthrowing the Iraq government are based on this matter. Egypt too was a major attraction for America. Egypt too has much crude oil reserves in the Gulf of Suez and in the western desert. Diplomatic interests: The present instability that the country faced has made much burden on US. It has been giving funds to Egypt and the new government may not support American supremacy over the land. The history of giving aids to Egypt started “when the Camp David Accords led to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty, the American aid began flowing” (Joshi). The over thrown of the 30 years rule of Hosni Mubarak in Egypt will make US to take effective diplomatic strategic in Egypt. Some controversial news regarding the involvement of America over the throwing down of Mubarak from the power has been making some effects on the new diplomatic status of America. It says that America had been in support of the previous president while it supported the rebels. The Telegraph states that “the US government has previously been a supporter of Mr Mubarak’s regime. But the leaked documents show the extent to which America was offering support to pro-democracy activists in Egypt while publicly praising Mr Mubarak as an important ally in the Middle East” (Ross, Moore & Swinford). Moreover, America wants to become the chief guarantor of Egypt-Israel peace treaty. It was through this America takes a firm stand between these two countries. This method was earlier executed by President Carter. This particular act of America made everyone suspicious over the interests of America. They all believed that America is expected to have some benefits from the diplomacy (New York Media, LLC 35).America wants to take a diplomatic step towards the structuring of democracy in Egypt as the Mubarak government was destroyed by mass civilian attacks. America will have to review on its financial aid to Egypt in its present scenario. So the diplomatic interests of America surely make a deciding factor in Egypt. Strategic interests:US is giving huge amount to Egypt in order to make Egypt a part in America’s strategic pursuits on anti-terrorism, support over its acts in Iraq and the like. America has some other intentions too. It wants to support Israel in the ‘disengagement plan’ of Arial Sharon. Egypt too on the other hand has supported America’s strategic policies on the land. It has supported US interventions in the land, it has agreed to open new markets for US goods, and in addition to these it has supported the pro-Israel policy of USA. The book quotes David Welch, assistant secretary of state for Near Eastern affairs: “Our strategic partnership with Egypt is a cornerstone of US policy in this region. We share a vision of the Middle East that is at peace and free of terror” (Callaway & Matthews 47). America has made use of giving aids to Egypt in implementing its foreign policies on Egypt. America has interfered in Egyptian sovereignty as it stressed to release Ayman Nur, the person who contested against Hosni Mubarak in the presidential election 2005 from the jail. He was accused of forgery after the election. America was arguing for its implementation of human rights policy towards Egypt, but many international human rights activists judge the attempts of America on Egypt as deceitful. America witnessed a shift from its foreign policies after 2000. The Bush doctrine (the period of George W Bush as president of America) showed its interest in making allies for the purpose of war on terrorism and for securing global peace. Bush believed that only democracy can bring peace to nations (the experience of Afghan and Iraq wars proved it wrong). The strategic goals of America found its place in Egypt too. The revolt over Hosni Mubarak’s government by the commoners with the help of the army could change the 30 years rule all on a sudden. The establishment of a new government is still a hard task for Egypt. America’s role becomes predominant here in the new scenario of Egyptian politics. Israel’s proximity and Egyptian aids: The following chart shows America’s concern over Israel and its neighbouring states. The American government is giving funds in large quantity to the neighbouring states of Israel for promoting military activities in the region. In the analysis of the chart makes clear that America is keen on making a strong military that works for America both in North Africa and in the Middle East. As far as America is considered it has been keeping up with Israeli support in all matters. Israel is the chief recipient of American aids. Huge amount of money is given to Israel to develop its military force that will work for America. Moreover, Israel acts as the spokesperson of American dominance in the Middle East. It is necessary for America to keep the security of Israel and so in this attempt America is funding Egypt from attacking the weapon reserve of America, in Israel. The ever pervasive nature of America in making the American hegemony over the world is seen here. Effects of US foreign aid towards Egypt Egypt has received over $ 52 billion in the form of foreign aid from the United States during the period 1975-2000 which positioned Egypt immediately after Israel as the second nation among the top recipients of US foreign aid (Wiarda & Skelley 305). The motive was to keep Egypt away from war with other Middle East countries and to bring about an attitude against war among the people of Egypt by improving their standard of living by means of different support programs. Military equipments and training was the sector which consumed a major part of the foreign assistance. On the other hand, the people of Egypt have witnessed various developmental programs which cover basic human needs, family planning, sustainable development, civil society and democratization. US foreign aid policy on Egypt had satisfied most of its objective such as preventing war between Egypt and Israel, bringing out an increase in the per capita income of Egypt and the recognition of Egypt among the Middle East countries. Several successful long term developmental projects have also been carried out in Egypt with the support of US which include roads, schools, water resources, agriculture and mosques. Governmental institutions of Egypt such as the courts, customs and tax departments also received assistance form the United States for their improvement. The US has also attempted to initiate programs for privatization and anticorruption in Egypt (Wiarda & Skelley 305). Even though Egypt has received immense support in the form of foreign aid from the United States, commercial relationships between the two have not yet been so developed. In the year 2008 the reported bilateral merchandise trade constituted only $ 8.4 billion and the amount was equal to 5% of the US trade over the Middle East and North American region (Kotschwar & Schott 2). The concentration of US foreign direct investment in Egypt constituted $8.8 billion mainly in the mining sector. As a result of the objections that US have raised against the political developments of Egypt regarding the Presidential election, most of the free trade negotiations failed in the year 2005 and the politics of instigating latest discussions on a comprehensive bilateral free trade pact got even worsened after the fall of US Trade Promotion Authority (Kotschwar & Schott 2). There are many who believe that the US foreign aids have been instrumental in maintaining and promoting international peace and security through effective global diplomacy. Lancaster, in this respect, observes that the US foreign aids have assisted in offering solutions to the Egyptian-Israeli conflicts as well as the Syria-Israeli struggles in the 1970s. The United States tried to bring about a comprehensive peace settlement between Egypt and Israel through its peace-making diplomacy by offering financial aid first to Israel and then to Egypt. The United States took initiatives for such an initiative settlement as it knew that the Soviet influence was getting unstable and that Egypt was a ‘strategically located region with large amounts of oil’ (Lancaster 78). Within no time, both Egypt and Israel turned out to be the largest recipients of us aid in the world and with this “rising aid in response to emergency needs, a diplomacy of peace-making in the Middle East” could be established and this in turn “helped to boost overall US aid levels” (Lancaster 79). In 1980, the largest recipients of U.S foreign aids were Egypt and Israel and these foreign aids were associated with peace-making and regional security. It has also been observed by such researchers as Sullivan and Jones that the U.S financial aid to Egypt has assisted in preserving human rights in Egypt. There have been a number of violence and human rights violations reported against the Christian minorities in Egypt and the United States’ role as the unchallenged global diplomatic leader has facilitated the prevention of such minority human rights violation (Sullivan & Jones 92). The support programs provided by the US have supported the investment flow and economic growth of Egypt and expectations are much higher in the areas of trade facilitation, development of domestic market, regulatory and institutional reforms, consumer protection and reduction in the cost of business registration. The Creation of job opportunities by encouraging the private sector and the implementation of programs aimed at the reduction of poverty has raised the standard of living of the people and modernized the financial sector. The recent focus is more on the growth of existing firms and new business start-ups by supporting both public and private sectors in order to improve the international competitiveness of Egypt. Support programs also concentrate on sectors such as agriculture and tourism which contribute directly towards the creation of job opportunities and income and segments like agricultural research, business development, policy reforms and irrigation along with strategic business partnerships which enhance the production of higher value added products (Situation in Egypt). Conclusions The relationship between America and Egypt were on a smooth way up to the present time. The changed conditions of Egypt may accept the US aid and as US wishes a strong democracy will be formed in Egypt. If Egypt accepts US plan the dominance of US over the Middle East will become stronger. Egypt is a crucial country for America. The financial support of America to some extent accelerates the overall development of the country. The economic development is a major contribution of America over Egypt. However, as pointed out by Peter Boone, “aid does not promote economic development for two reasons: poverty is not caused by capital shortage, and it is not optimal for politicians to adjust distortionary policies when they receive aid flows” (Boon 33).In Egypt the government made use of the aid for the economic growth of the country. The development that Egypt achieved in economic, trade, and commerce is not forgettable. It was America that stood as a great support for the country to protect its regional security from different terrorist elements. America could gain the support from a major Middle East and North African country in its attempts of securing global peace and security. In a close analysis it is very vivid that America is the major beneficiary in its relationships with Egypt. America through its financial aids buys an ally and it contributes much towards the American hegemony. The alliance with Egypt makes America open a market in Egypt and the free trade policies of America takes rooted in the country. The relationship with Egypt further enables America to take decisive power in the third world and make its supremacy over the other nations of the world. It is thus evident from the above discussion that the US foreign aid policies are planned so well as to satisfy the pre planned objectives. It has taken into account the constitution and custom of United States in the process of foreign policy formation. United States’ foreign aid programs support the growth and development of various recipient countries along with the attainment of certain objectives such as the reduction of stress between nations and bringing out global peace. The case of Egypt as already discussed falls as an example for the peace oriented foreign aid policy of United States. It is also observable that the focuses of foreign policy changes according to global political scenario and to certain incidents like the terrorist attack on US in the year 2001 which compelled them to contribute more to the global war on terrorism and to support states which suffer from terrorism. Their policies succeeded in preventing a war in the Middle East especially between Egypt and Israel. Even though there are several arguments against the foreign policy of United States that it is self interest motivated, it is true that the United Nations Foreign aid policies are helpful in bringing out desirable changes in inter state relationships and these initiatives have resulted in more positive global diplomacy. References Alterman, Jon B. Egypt and American foreign assistance, 1952-1956: hopes dashed. Illustrated ed: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Print. Callaway, Rhonda L & Matthews, Elizabeth G. Strategic US foreign assistance: the battle between human rights and national security. Illustrated ed: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2008. Print. Boon, Peter. Politics and the Effectiveness of Foreign Aid. NBER Working Series Paper 5308. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1995. Web. 24 Mar. 11. Burns, W.J. Economic aid and American policy toward Egypt, 1955-1981. State University of New York: SUNY Press, 1985. Print. Burman, Stephen. 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Illustrated ed: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Print. New York Media, LLC. New York Magazine. 12(14), 2 Apr 1979. Print. Quandt, William B. The United States and Egypt: an essay on policy for the 1990s. Brookings Institution Press, 1990. Print. Reasons for Foreign Aid. Buzzle.com, 2011. N.p. Web. 24 Mar. 11. Robinson, F.S. The Case for Rational Optimism. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2009. Print. Ross, Tim., Moore, Matthew & Swinford, Steven. Egypt protests: America's secret backing for rebel leaders behind uprising. Telegraph Media Group Limited, 2011. Web. 24 Mar. 11. Situation in Egypt. USAID, 2011. N.p. Web. 24 Mar. 11. Sullivan, D.J & Jones, Kimberly. Global security watch--Egypt: a reference handbook. Illustrated ed: ABC-CLIO, 2008. Print. Tarnoff, Curt. Foreign Aid: An Introduction to U. S. Programs and Policy. DIANE Publishing, 2010. Print. Wiarda, Howard J & Skelley, Esther M. The crisis of American foreign policy: the effects of a divided America. Illustrated ed: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. Print. Appendices Appendix 1: U.S. Aid to Egypt, 1946-2009 Source: U.S. Overseas Loans and Grants, Greenbook. Data is reported in 2009 constant USD. Appendix 2: U.S. Assistance to Egypt, Department of State and USAID Source: U.S. Foreign Assistance Dashboard and FY2012 150 Account Summary and Highlights. Appendix 3: U.S. Aid through the Economic Support Fund (ESF) Source: U.S. Foreign Assistance Dashboard. Appendix 4: Top 20 Development Donors to Egypt, 2009 Source: OECD/DAC Database. Appendix 5: US Aid to Egypt 1998-2010 Read More