The Impact of Terrorism on Tourism - Dissertation Example

?The impact of Terrorism on Tourism Literature Review Terrorism is the consequence of the activities of the terrorist groups to spread fear and panicin the minds of the people across different countries. Through the spreading of terror the terrorist aims at disrupting the economic and trade activities of any region. To this end, Wilks, Pendergast and Leggat (2006) observe that the reason for the emergence of terrorism cannot be only attributed to the factors of poverty and acute frustration related to social problems. Poverty and social frustration are not the potential contributors to the spread and development of terrorism in developed countries around the world. However, of late the terrorism activities have gained further dominance owing to its growing linkage to the tourism industry. Wilks, Pendergast and Leggat (2006) states in this regard that it is hard to uncover the reasons which have led to the growth of terrorism and its growing linkage to tourism activities. The tourism industry has become the target point for terrorism activities in the international scale owing to the slag of security and alertness. Tourists on tour tend to be remain undeterred about the surrounding environment being lost in the fun of holidaying which becomes the target point of terrorist to easily lay their grounds upon. Wilks, Pendergast and Leggat (2006) further observe that the rate of infiltration of terrorist in tourism centers has also another potential reason other than the lack of alertness of the tourists. The functions of tourism mainly occur along the principal trade routes of any region. Thus the terrorists feel that attack on such trade and economic routes would help in disrupting the economic activities of the region. Thus terrorist attacks on tourism helps in jeopardizing the trade and economic operations of a region making it poor. The major economic trade routes of any region being associated with water, air, road and railways get totally disrupted owing to terrorist activities, which in turn jeopardize the economic development of the region. Wilks, Pendergast and Leggat (2006) also state that the growth of tourism industries of a region or country has increased its association with other industries like food and transport. Thus a spur in the terrorism activities linked with terrorism is bound to affect the potential industries of a region contributing to weakening of the economy. The linkage of terrorism operations with tourism industries can also be observed to be a potential factor that enables the terrorist outfits to gain considerable publicity. Tourist centers being largely linked with market places helps the terrorist gain wide amount of publicity having conducted a large massacre of human lives and property. It helps them reach their demands to the eyes and ears of the higher authorities. Finally, Wilks, Pendergast and Leggat (2006) state that the nature of the functions of tourism industry being so diversified and spread across international borders that it becomes difficult to trace the movement of terrorists inside hotels and tourist areas. People from various nationalities clad in different type of outfits tend to regularly visit international tourist hotspots which being not closely monitored encourages militancy actions. (Wilks, Pendergast and Leggat, 2006, pp.82, 85-86). Types of Terrorist Activities across Tourism Centers The event of terrorism linked with tourism activities in order to succeed in their goals of spreading terror and panic in the regions takes to different forms of terrorist operations. In this regard, Henderson (2007) observes that terrorist outfits generally carry out a host of terrorist activities, which aims to take many lives in order to succeed in their mission of spreading terror. Different terrorist operations are planed out by the terrorist groups, which can take place individually or in particular assortments. The different activities, which are planned by the terrorist groups, include employment of suicide bombers to counter insurgency operations. The terrorist groups can also take resort of hijacking a bus or aircraft for instance to spread terror in the minds of the regional and national governments. Henderson (2007) further states that events have happened where the terrorists have directly opened fire on innocent civilians packed in tourist areas to spread fear. The terrorist outfits having hijacked a plane also plan of countering a crash, which also causes huge damage to life and property. In fact, the global tourism industry has become a region of blood bath on account of terrorist operations. Many international hotels, restaurants, clubs and cafes have become the soft targets for the militancy operations. Terrorists armed with superior weapons enter such places in concealment and assassinate many innocent lives (Henderson, 2007, p.55). Terrorism as Economic Hindrance to Tourism Terrorism poses a huge hindrance to the economic development of tourism activities of any region. Owing to the spontaneity of terrorist attacks the tourism activities become greatly affected which leads to decline in the number of tourists and thereby curtails revenue of the tourist firms. In regards to the above context, Horner and Swarbrooke (2004) observe that the rise of terrorist activities in the Egyptian region during the period ranging from 1991 to 1992 created a huge impact on the tourism revenue. The height of terrorist operations in the region made the tourism revenue amount decline from $2.1 billion during 1992 to $1.3 billion during the period of 1993. This decline in the revenue of the Egyptian tourism operations can be largely attributed to the huge decline in the flow of tourists in such regions. Horner and Swarbrooke (2004) further show a similar effect on the Turkish tourism industry owing to the attack of the Kurdish tribes during the period ranging from 1992 to 1993. Due to the rise in the insurgency operations in the region, Turkish tourism agencies reflected a decline in the event of holiday ticket bookings by around 30 percent. The range of terrorist operations which were affecting the individual regions in their tourism activities and thereby weakening the economy countered a drastic move after the happening of the September 2011 attacks. Horner and Swarbrooke (2004) state that owing to the use of airplanes to counter the attacks on the twin towers the airline industry one of the major tourism transporters received a great hit. The impact led the airlines industry within the region of America and across the Atlantic landscape decline heavily both in terms of revenue and as well as operational efficiency. The range of the impacts was manifold which included job cuts amounting to around 11,000. Further the airline companies like United States Airways curbed the schedule flights by around 23 percent to lessen their operational costs. Horner and Swarbrooke (2004) further state that like the United States Airways another major airlines company, Continental Airlines also led to the curtailment of around 12,000 employees and slashed its schedule flights by around 20 percent. Similarly names of other big airline companies like Delta, Air Canada and American Airlines to name a few also reflected the like activities of reducing the number of schedule flights by around 20 percent. On account of these flight reductions Horner and Swarbrooke (2004) state the number of domestic and international flights came down by 30 and 50 percent respectively in the American and Atlantic region. These activities of the airline companies also led to the huge decline of potential visitors and tourists in several regions. Estimates show that in the Caribbean region the reduction in the number of flights led to the loss of around a large number of visitors whose amount declined by around 13.5 percent. This decline in the number of visitors in such region counter impacted the airline companies by cutting around 365,000 jobs. This decline in the tourism trade affected the economies of developed and developing countries hugely. To counter such the government started spending huge amounts to help revive the stolen pride of the tourism industry. Horner and Swarbrooke (2004) notes that the government of Ireland expended a large amount of around 1.5 million Euros to help the companies take to active promotions (Horner & Swarbrooke, 2004, pp.360-363). Terrorism as Social Hindrance to Tourism The above discussion shows the adverse economic impacts rendered by the growth of terrorism activities in disturbing the tourism operations of many regions. However apart from the large range of economic impacts the growth of insurgency operations also renders a great amount of social impacts which also acts as hindrances to tourism. In this regard, Laws, Prideaux and Chon (2007) state that the terrorist organizations to fulfill their own objectives target the life of the innocent tourists pertaining to different nationalities. These terrorist organizations by assassinating the lives of the tourists affect the social structure of the regions. The terrorist groups are observed to carry out such heinous motives in order to punish the government of the region for some of the economic and social policies issued which are against their betterment. However the height of such terrorist operations leads to further social and economic disturbance of the region, which is again a gain for the terrorist outfits. Prideaux and Chon (2007) further state that the link between terrorism operations and tourism activities can also be studied on a social scale. It is observed that the terrorist operations in many countries increase out of a cultural conflict between the different social groups international and domestic. The people of mainly the Islam dominated countries are found to have developed a negative emotion against the western tourists who had come there to tour. The western people mainly take to food articles like pork and wine which go against their cultures. Thus these Islamic cultural groups in order to save their ardent and obsolete cultural heritage often resort to terrorism practices. Prideaux and Chon (2007) observe that these people bear a thought that putting increased fear in the minds of the westerners would deter them from visiting their country and thus would save their cultures from being demolished. However in such activities the revenue and the economic prosperity, which were accruing from such rapidly, decline and in turn affect the economy (Laws, Prideaux & Chon, 2007, pp.132-133). Another social and cultural image of the tourist sites affected by terrorism activities is annihilating the cultural edifice of the different regions. The terrorist factions in their spur to spread terror and disturb the social and cultural condition of the countries tend to destroy the national prides of the region attracting tourists. In this regard, Hoffman (2006) states that the militancy activities conducted by the Taliban groups led to the destruction of two Buddha statues of ancient origin and built of sandstone. These statues were located in the Bamiyan region to an area west of the Kabul province. Moreover the Taliban factions also invited the media to take coverage of the destruction activities to show to the world their supremacy over the region. Hoffman (2006) further states that the blowing up of two sandstone statues of Buddha was part of the ongoing operations of the terrorist groups to destroy the old cultural heritage of the Afghanistan region. It was further considered that destruction of the cultural heritage of the regions like Afghanistan by the Taliban regime simply stood against the realm of International Law made to protect such cultural heritages. In fact, the destruction of the Buddha statues in the Afghanistan region was strongly condemned by the World Heritage Group as a clear sign of defiance of international law (Hoffman, 2006, pp.32-33). Terrorism and Protection Activities of Tourism Industry In regards to the increase in the level of terrorism operations the service companies like hotels and transport companies are becoming well alert and in fact strategizing their security operations for the same. These companies have to render a security outlook to both their internal staff and also on the visiting population from different countries to maintain their repute. Thus, Fay (2007) observes that these companies in the light of rendering security have divided the operations in six key strategic areas. Firstly, the several tour companies along with the service companies like hotels have to reinstate the protection of the visitors as one of their main tasks. Thus the visitors are required to pass along proper security checks before entering the hotel lounges. Further in threat prone areas like in Islamic countries the foreign visitors must be well protected from the activities of the local people in their endeavor to harming the westerners. The visitors must also be protected from the hands of pickpockets who literally try to financially harm the visitors. In the second case, Fay (2007) states that the visitors and also the staff of the hotel companies must be protected against the brutal behavior of some people who tend to enter as tourists and tend to cause physical harm thereby. Further in the third position the tourist companies and other hotel groups must perform regular scrutinizing functions to help protect the tourist sites from being destroyed by the terrorist factions. The hotels and lodges must endeavor to render home like security to the visitors and hence must take special protection of the sites to reduce terrorist threats. Fourthly, Fay (2007) also observes that the tour operators must render special look at safeguarding the cultural heritage of the regions from being perturbed by the terrorist operations. It is held that a weak cultural heritage helps to create loopholes through which the terrorists can resume their operations. The economic security of the tourism operations is rendered the fifth position in the light of increasing terrorist activities. The security points should remain in high alert to protect the cultural and national heritage from being made economically weak by the terrorist activities. Finally, Fay (2007) states that the big hotels and tourist companies must protect their brand reputations from being destroyed by terrorist activities. It is because the inception of terrorist activities in a region or locality causes huge media attention. The terrorist groups in their desire to be covered by the media intensify their activities. However, it must be considered that the brand repute of the hotels and tourist companies comes at stake for being published in a wide manner. These companies may happen to lose their visitors and consumers on account of such coverage for the failure of maintaining security. Thus, Fay (2007) states that protection taken along these means would certainly help these companies to counter the rising security threats (Fay, 2007, p 474). Terrorist Attacks on Egypt In the light of the above discussions a case study on the militancy activities in Egypt is drawn to reflect the intensity of such in affecting the tourism situation of the region. Essner (2003) observes that the region of Egypt owing to its cultural resources like the Pyramids and the great Aswan dam over the river Nile have been attracting a large chunk of international tourists from various parts of the world. However, the case of Egypt bears a relevance to the above discussion for the region is home to Islamic fundamentalist groups and hence holds the activity of terrorism as an instrument to draw the attention of the international world. Essner (2003) states that the rise of militancy in Egypt happened from the period of the 1970s with the rise of Islamic factions like ‘al-Gama’a al-Islamiya’ which started terrorizing the region to accept the rules of Sharia, the Islamic Law. The main target groups of this Islamic terrorist faction were large number of administrative officials, which included of government officers, policemen, and other security personnel. The Islamic group also made a soft target on the large number of tourists visiting the region to make the government of the land accepts their demand. Essner (2003) states the terrorism activities of this Islamic body commenced from October 1992 and lasted for about five years till 1997 under which they created huge obstacles to the entry of foreign tourists in the Egyptian region. The militant group in its activity to spread terror countered its first move by targeting a cruise liner along the Nile River. The cruise liner was carrying in it around a hundred tourists pertaining to the German origin. However the firing activities led to the wounding of three Egyptian crewmembers but could not harm the foreign nationals. Thus, Essner (2003) observes that subsequently in a matter of three weeks the Islamic fundamentalists in a bid to spread terror in the minds of the foreign nationals assassinated a 28-year-old tourist of British origin. In the same event two others were also left wounded. The government of Egypt led by President Hosni Mubarak rather than endeavoring to draw a mutual settlement with the Islamic factions started arresting them in large numbers and putting them behind bars. Thus these Islamic groups in a fit of rage started countering more attacks on the foreign tourists by attacking buses and passenger liners carrying them. Essner (2003) states that the militant group during the period of 1996 targeted a group of Greek tourists and managed to kill around eighteen innocent lives. Further a series of attacks went on during 1997 when several foreign tourists hailing from Germany, Japan, France and Swiss countries were either killed or detained in large numbers. However the astonishing fact of the game is that in fact of some huge amount of insurgency operations which aims to claim a large amount of lives the tourism activities in the region went on continuing showing a rise and fall in revenues accruing from such. Essner (2003) observes that though in the initial stages the rate of revenue coming from tourism declined by around 11 percent for such insurgency operations it raised by around 34 percent during 1995. Again another estimate shows that from the period 1993 to 1997 the rate of net income received from tourism revenues amounted to an increase by around 93 percent. Finally, Essner (2003) draws a study to reflect the reasons for which the tourists become the center of attack by the militant group. The first reason placed is the easy accessibility of the tourists to counter such insurgency threats with high level of precision. Secondly the tourist groups are observed to be unaware of the threat prone areas for which they easily become potential targets. Thirdly the attack on tourists planned by such terrorist outfits helps in drawing huge amount of popularity through media actions which the terror outfits desire to meet their objectives (Essner, 2003, pp.8-9, 11). Summary The development of tourism activities in any region helps the region to accrue large amount of revenues from both the domestic and international scale. Further the activities of tourism also help the country or region to extend its relations with other neighboring countries or states. However the emergence of terrorist operations both in the domestic and international scale has affected the tourism activities in a significant manner by deterring many people and tourism agencies to cancel their tour operations. The increasing link between the tourism and terrorist operations has been studied along several aspects. However the most important factor is that the terrorists desire increased media attention, which can be easily availed through countering attacks on tourists. Moreover the terrorist factions also understand that their political and social objectives can be easily achieved through the spreading of terror through attack on tourists. The event of tour operations of a region is largely linked with different sectors of the economy like transport and food. Thus attack on tourism disturbs the transportation sector of the region or country jeopardizing the trade and economic activities. Thus the terror groups through such activities create pressure on the government to accept their social and political demands. The tourists become easy targets for the terror groups for their lack of knowledge of the social and political conditions of the region and also for the lack of their awareness. A case study made on Egypt also reflects a practical example based on the above discussion. Thus the tour operators along with hotel and other tourism related concerns should be greatly alert of the moves of the terrorists to help enhance the security paradigms. Methodology Qualitative Methodology In the course of conducting research based on a scientific basis the use of Qualitative Methodology serves as a tool of paramount importance. The use of qualitative research methodology helps to attain answers to different types of queries, which emerge out of the need for conducting scientific research. Moreover the use of qualitative research helps in collecting the required data for meeting the research purpose. Further through the analysis made on the data gathered the qualitative research methodology helps in divulging further to gain useful insights and make accurate findings even beyond the natural parameters of the study conducted. The qualitative research methodology operates based on some key research methods which can be enumerated as follows. The first method in use is the ‘Participant Observation’ where the person conducting research acts as a participant of the social group under focus. This method is based on conducting extensive studies and varies along longer time periods. In regards to second method the researcher instead of participating in the focus group can directly observe the course of events, record them and then make further analysis on such. Further the use of ‘Direct Observation’ methods operates through the choosing of samples which helps the researcher to become more focused and thus employs less time than the former one. Third method employed by the researcher focuses on the taking of interviews which helps to conduct an in depth study of the nature of the focus groups. Through the use of interviews the personal understanding and experiences of the people can be studied which helps in reflecting the practical impacts of the issue under question. The style of interviews framed for qualitative research methodology is generally unstructured in nature, which helps the researcher to frame the interview questions in a more evolved fashion. These questions help in probing the mind of the interviewee in a much deeper fashion than in the case of formal or structured interviews. Fourthly, the research tool, which is used more commonly in conducting qualitative research, is the use of Case Studies. Case Study based research helps in rendering a deeper probe and puts enhanced focus on an event in regards to conducting a research study. Case Study based research can be done by the researcher personally and does not require the employment of further individuals. Hence it helps in reducing cost and helps in accomplishing the research in a faster manner. One principal benefit of conducting research based on qualitative methodology is gaining a better access to the minds of participants through conducting interviews based on open-ended questions. The researcher through the use of qualitative methods can divulge freely to ask the interviewee questions related to one’s personal understanding of the circumstances. Qualitative research thus helps in gaining a detailed understanding of the topic under question and thereby helps to draw potential inferences based on such observations. Being qualitative it mainly makes use of literary aspects to complete the realm of study of the observations generated from interviews and thereby authenticates the understanding. (Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide, n.d.; Trochim, 2006). Quantitative Methodology The use of quantitative or numerical techniques to understand the realm of differences between two or more groups or sets or again to examine the set of relation between two or more variables can be referred to as quantitative methodology. The quantitative methodological approach is used for different types of studies pertaining to different behavioral subjects linked with management, psychology, social and life sciences. Further the quantitative research methodology encourages the extensive use of statistics to make analysis based on the findings made. The quantitative methodology as a research approach renders more stress on conducting the research findings based on quantifiable analysis through the use of different methods. The first method used by quantitative research methodology suggests the development of mathematical models to simplify and narrow the realm of research objectives. The development of the models is made to replicate the real situation or circumstance. In case of physical modeling a similar type of framework is constructed based on the real figure of the object in focus. Models can also be developed which instead of reflecting the same figurative elements of the real object can in turn render a thematic presentation of such. Again another type of model can also be developed which rather than showing the relationship of the model to the physical figure focuses on rendering a mathematical representation of the external relations. In this model the use of a large number of mathematical expressions are made to reflect the interrelationship between different external variables. The use of quantitative methodology in studying the real life situations pertaining to social branches of study depends on the use of mathematical modeling. Use of mathematical models helps in understanding the level of impact which one variable renders over the other. This approach helps to draw a correlation between the different events occurring in a closely knit manner. The success of quantitative modeling is ensured based on the extent to which it highlights on the objects and constraints of the real life situations. The second method based on quantitative research methodology consists of gathering of data from the external sources to reflect the impact of one variable on the other. These data sources gathered when mathematically compared through the construction of models helps to gain a useful insight into the research findings. This also helps to develop a highly focused understanding on the variability of events depending on the change of circumstances. Thirdly having generated the accurate mathematical model based on the gathering of data sets from the external environment that the mathematical model proceeds in finding a solution to the same. In the process of finding a mathematical solution to the problem hypothetical designs are constructed over which the models are tested time and again to arrive at needed results. The applicability of the solution obtained counters a more important task in helping the model earn future success. A successful mathematical model helps the researcher to generate an adequate and reasonable report based on the findings made. The making of the report counters an important managerial task for taking the right decisions at the right time. The quantitative methodology helps the management researcher to rightly implement the managerial decisions for help in taking corrective actions. During the implementation phase of the mathematical models the researcher is required to conduct continuous monitoring activities. This range of monitoring activities helps in further modification of the empirical models to help them gain better solutions for the future. The quantitative research model also uses the mode of close-ended questions, which specifies the limits of the answers of the interviewee’s responses. It thereby helps in gaining a more focused approach to the research problem. Moreover the quantitative research methodology depending on the use of core mathematical models counters a rigid framework of research study. It has less of flexibility. Further the use of quantifiable procedures like use of extensive statistical techniques renders a mathematical representation of the hypothetical assumptions made during the research process. This helps in tailoring the needs for which the models are constructed. (Sweeney, Anderson, Williams, Camm & Martin, 2009, pp.6-13; Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide, p.3). References 1. Henderson, J. (2007), Tourism crises: causes, consequences and management, Butterworth-Heinemann. 2. Horner, S. & J. Swarbrooke (2004), International cases in tourism management, Butterworth-Heinemann. 3. Laws, E, Prideaux, B., & K. Chon (2007), Crisis management in tourism, CABI. 4. Hoffman, B. (2006), Art and cultural heritage: law, policy, and practice, Cambridge University Press. 5. Fay, J. (2007), Encyclopedia of security management, Butterworth-Heinemann. 6. Essner, J. (2003), Terrorism’s Impact on Tourism: What the Industry May Learn from Egypt’s Struggle with al-Gama’a al-Islamiya, Available At: http://sand.miis.edu/research/student_research/Essner_Tourist%20Terrorism.pdf (Accessed on February 19, 2011). 7. “Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide” (n.d.), fhi.org, Available At: http://www.fhi.org/nr/rdonlyres/etl7vogszehu5s4stpzb3tyqlpp7rojv4waq37elpbyei3tgmc4ty6dunbccfzxtaj2rvbaubzmz4f/overview1.pdf (Accessed on February 21, 2011). 8. Trochim, W. (2006), Qualitative Methods, Available At: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualmeth.php (Accessed on February 21, 2011). 9. Sweeney, D., Anderson, D., Williams, T., Camm, J., & R. Martin (2009), Quantitative Methods for Business, Cengage Learning. 10. Wilks, J., Pendergast, D. & P. Leggat (2006), Tourism in turbulent times: towards safe experiences for visitors, Elsevier. Read More