Biofuel: Definition, Pros, and Cons - Term Paper Example

Introduction Biofuels are defined as liquid fuels used in transport whose origin is biomass resources. There are several sources of feedstocks which are used in the production of biofuels including forestry resources, specifically grown crops or other biomass waste sources like cooking oils, green wastes and food processing. In biofuels the term 1G is normally used to refer to utilization of certain agriculture based products such as oilseeds or grains in production of biofuel where well established oil processing or sugar fermentation techniques like exploiting sugars, starch trans-esterification and vegetables oils as the feedstocks in the process of conversion (Boerjan, 2005). On the other hand 2G has use in reference to biofuels whose origin is biomass with high ingredient of recalcitrant components and are sometimes called advanced biofuels but this need not be confused in the circumstance where the term advanced has a specific use in USA RFS2 (Renewable Fuel Standard programme) that specifically refers a 50% occurrence in life cycle green house gas (GHG) emissions in comparison to the baseline emission of diesel and gasoline that was established in 2005 (Burney, J.A., Davis, S.J., Lobella, D.B., 2010). Demand for biofuels in EU and the world There is a great variation in the demand for biofuels in various countries and regions. The demand drivers include energy security, economic and policies concerning climate change in governments, the existence of business opportunities in agricultural sector and the energy sectors; the emergence of innovations in the automotive and the transport sector at large and environmental and social concerns. There is a considerable regional difference in relative shares of gasoline and diesel with regard to fuel transport proportions. According to (Hertel, 2010) projections 60% of Europe transport energy will be derived from diesel while 40% will from gasoline. Putting into consideration the degree of investing done to ensure sufficient fuel supply and in the manufacture of power-train infrastructure and the life span of the stock of vehicle that is relatively long of more than 15 years, it is likely that in the next 20 years gasoline and diesel may remain the dominant fuel. This is an implication in the development of alternative transport fuel and also serves as an explanation for the emphasis placed on ethanol in countries like USA as a substitute for gasoline and biodiesel , which is sourced majorly from oilseed rape, in Europe as a substitute for diesel. The dependency of biofuel acts as a substitute in terms of volume or energy substitution for diesel by biodiesel and petrol by ethanol also has substantial implications for feedstock and crop choice and the associated demand for land arising for biofuel production. Due to the fact that ethanol and biodiesel have low energy densities when compared to the fossil fuel alternatives, and also ethanol having a lower energy density in comparison to biodiesel and gasoline, the proportion of the fossil fuel-based market under the control of diesel or petrol vehicles has an effect on the demand which is projected for biodiesel and ethanol crops in EU ( Hammond,2008a). Oil crops have been known to have a tendency of having lower productivities either on energy basis or volume basis per unit area when compared to crops which are rich in starch or sugar. International Energy Agency (IEA) has given resent assessments of global primary energy demand up to 2050 in their BLUE Map scenarios and Baseline. According to the Baseline scenario, there is an expansion of the global primary energy demand by 45% from about 12, 000 million tones of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2005 to about 17,000 Mtoe in 2030. From the scenario in baseline, it is evident that the GHG emissions originating from transport would increase by about 50% from 2005 levels by 2030 and well over 80% by the year 2050, as there will be an increase in fossil fuels that will be being used by this time (IEA, 2009). In the case of IEA BLUE Map/Shift2 scenarios there are options of achieving an overall reduction in transport GHG emissions of up to 40% in 2050 as there will be increase in the consumption of fuel relative to emission levels in 2005. There is a striking observation in IEA Blue Map/Shifts for 2050 in that, even with when there is increased world demand in transport energy due to world increase in population and development, the overall emissions levels of GHG linked to transport is reduced to levels that are well below those of 2005. This achievement is through an increase in fuel/energy efficiency in the transport sector of about 50%, use of electrical and hydrogen energy carriers with low-carbon in delivery vehicles and light passenger after 2030 and by increased use of advanced biofuels. Biofuels are a very important energy source in the reduction of emissions of GHG in the scenario of the BLUE Map which is required in both short term for light vehicles, and for the longer term in aviation, shipping and freight. It is noted in IEA report about 20 times increase in biofuels is required to attain the outcomes anticipated in the BLUE Map scenario by 2050. It is believed that if this is done with wisdom this is achievable by use of a small fraction of the world’s agricultural land (IEA, 2009). In the recent projections by IEA it is indicated that 20% of the demand in liquid fuel by 2050 is likely to be fulfilled by use of biofuels and that in combination with electricity and low carbon hydrogen for vehicles, this being a representation of approximately a half of total transport fuels. It is worth noting that this is a trend showing depreciation of the previous 2008 IEA ETP (1EA,2008) where it was pointed out that about 26% of transport fuel demand by the year 2050 is likely to be sourced from 2G biofuels (IEA,2008). The downward revision happened because of the concerns over the use of land and struggle between food agriculture and change of land use and net GHG balances of biofuels, more so for those depending on 1G feedstocks (IEA, 2009). These issues have been under intense discussion from 2008. The figures by IEA BLUE Map for constituents of biofuel of world transport fuels of 20-25% by 2030-2050 are in tandem with some present policy directions. The relationship between the biofuels and food crops in the last decade, there has been stagnation in demand for food crops in Europe as a result of aging population but there has been improvement in crop yields. This has resulted in the decline of the area under arable crops in Europe. Studies that were commissioned by the European Commission did an evaluation of the potential impacts of biofuel component for 2050 renewable transport fuel ambitions in the Renewable Energy Directive (2009). Various modeling approaches and assumptions utilised have resulted into substantial differences in the projected demands land for the EU biofuels. However, generally there is anticipation of a halt in the reduction in the crop land which is considered to be arable or a substantial decrease in the declining rate for the crop land (Greenwell, 2010). It is not very clear the international impacts that will from production of biofuels in relation to the demand of land and land use change or how change in profitability of biofuel crops like wheat and rape will affect Europe future yields. It is a general belief that the expansion in biofuel production worldwide will bring about an increase in the demand for several intermediate feedstocks such as sugars, vegetable oils, starch and shortly cellulose. Many countries in EU are expected to be consumers of biofuels in the next 10 years with many venturing in production of feedstocks and converting the feedstocks to biofuels where some countries will become significant participants in exportaion of either biofuels or the feedstocks required in production of biofuels (Hammond, 2008). There is a similar emergency regarding to feedstocks needed in production of electricity and heat. Because of increase in biofuel demand there will be an increase in returns to those who supply feedstock and for those engaged in biofuel production and in return there will be increased investment in research, infrastructure and human capacity in the area of agriculture and forestry. On the other hand, emerging of lignocellolosic conversion techniques whose application at scale will give land users new crops and also will bring about good management of watersheds, soil erosion, carbon stocks, nutrient leaching and biodiversity. With the emergence of new markets for biofuel, both internal and export, will offer a variety opportunities that can be used in solving existing problems through engagement in intensive agriculture and forestry production. However there is fear of increased pressure on delicate ecosystems and communities and competition for land alternative utilization for example for recreation and food production. There will be need for policy development so as to regulate the rate of increase in use of biofuels and other forms of bioenergy, the site of the feedstocks and to ensure that there is no exploitation of the local communities and their resources in a detrimental fashion. Biofuel technologies The technologies involved in ethanol production by fermentation process of sucrose or starch by sugar crops like sugarcane and sugar beet or use of grain cops like maize and wheat or biodiesel production by use of plant oil is already well established. Typical biofuel yields produced litres for every hectare has been established for a variety of IG crops. It is important to take note that there is production different biofuels with plant oils for biodiesel fuels being produced from rapeseed, soybean and oil palm while the other crops are known in the production sugars that is coverted to bioethanol which is used as a gasoline substitute. Because there is need for both fuel types the cultivation of crops is driven by both the qualitative needs and the yield based requirements. For EU there is high interest in the production of rapeseed which is important in production of biodieel locally. When the 2G capability is added to biofuel yields from the 1G crops, there is an increase in biofuel yields increase of between 10 and 35% in most IG crops, although sugarcane gives significant increase and is the number one biofuel producer in terms of volume at a rate of 9000l/ha (Hallac, 2009). In this estimation there is assumption that there are in-field residue removal rates of 50% of the total residue available. The other assumption is that lignin and other sugars which are un-fermentable are not being converted to biofuels but are available for generation of electricity/heat with the chance of forming waste streams. Co-products which originate from the processing of main crop to biofuels act as significant differentiating factors in all 1G crops, in the process of establishing their GHG, energy and land utilization requirements. It has been estimated that GHG emissions credits that has been attributed largely to Distillers Grainswith Solubles (DGS) from ethanol sourced from maize have an equivalence of between 19% and 38% of the sum total life-cycle and GHG emissions respectively (Campbell,2008). Conclusion The development of biofuels in EU will depend on good agricultural practice (GAP) standards and forestry good practices which should have verification of credible assurance and certification procedures. The emergence of this is witnessed from several regional and global initiatives that in progress like the developingISO, the Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), Global Roundtable for Sustainable Biofuels (RSB), and CEN standards and the existing FSC, PERC and other forestry schemes. This trend is encouraged by the rapid development that is based on scientific knowledge and modeling tools. It is very clear that the competitive and synergistic interactions that exists between agriculture for food agriculture for biofuel is possible. Therefore, good policies and regulations implementation will minimize competition that is detrimental in will also enhance the synergies in addition to capturing the global sustainability benefits derived from biofuel uses. Uses of biofues in EU have attention on a vast range of sustainability; policy issues and science and technology issues that will find application in future land uses. The EU biofuels debate is seen as a paradigm shift on the way to evaluate man appropriation of land for his purposes and sustainable intensification of land utilization. References BOERJAN, W., 2005. Biotechnology and the domestication of forest trees. Current Opinions in Biotechnology 16, 159–166. BURNEY, J.A., DAVIS, S.J., LOBELLA, D.B., 2010. Greenhouse gas mitigation by agricultural intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, PNAS Early Edition. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0914216107. CAMPBELL, J.E., LOBELL, D.B., GENOVA, R.C., FIELD, C.B., 2008. The global potential of bioenergy on abandoned agriculture lands. Environmental Science and Technology 42 (15), 5791–5794. DG-ENERGY, 2010. Assessment of the impact of land use change on greenhouse gas emissions from biofuels and bioliquids. European Commission. IEA, 2008. Energy Technology Perspectives: Scenarios and Strategies to 2050. International Energy Agency, Paris, France. IEA, 2009. Transport, Energy and CO2: Moving towards Sustainability. International Energy Agency, Paris, France. EPA, 2010a. Regulatory Announcement: EPA Finalizes Regulations for the National Renewable Fuel Standard Program for 2010 and Beyond. Office of Transportation and Air Quality EPA-420-F-10-007 Fact Sheet, February 2010. GREENWELL, H.C., LAURENS, L.M.L., SHIELDS, R.J., LOVITT, R.W., FLYNN, K.J., 2010. Placing microalgae on the biofuels priority list: a review of technological challenges. Interface 7 (46), 703–726. HALLAC, B.B., SANNIGRAHL, P., PU, Y., RAY, M., MURPHY, R.J., RAGAUSKAS, A.J., 2009.Biomass characterization of Buddleja davidii: a potential feedstock for biofuel production. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 57, 1275–1281. HALLAC, B.B., SANNIGRAHL, P., PU, Y., RAY, M., MURPHY, R.J., RAGAUSKAS, A.J., 2010. Effect of ethanol organosolv pretreatment on enzymatic hydrolysis of Buddleja davidii s tem biomass. Industrial Engineering and Chemical Research 49, 1467–1472. HAMMOND, G.P., KALLU, S., MCMANUS, M.C., 2008A. The development of biofuels for the UK automotive market. Applied Energy 85 (6), 506–515. HAMMOND, G.P., MCMANUS, M.C., MEZZULLO, W.G., 2008b. A bioenergy resource assessment for the south west of England. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Energy 161 (4EN), 159–173. HERTEL, T.W., GOLUB, A.A., JONES, A.D., O’HARE, M., PLEVIN, R.J., KAMMEN, D.A., 2010.Releases of greenhouse gases (GHG) from indirect land-use change triggered by crop. BioScience 20 (3), 223–231. Read More