Natural Resource Management: Australia - Case Study Example

Topic: Natural Resource Management- Australia: Case Study of Tasmania Forest Name: Professor: Institution: Course: Date of Submission: 1. Introduction Forest industries contribute significantly to the economic and social well-being of rural and regional Australia. These industries occur across a variety of sectors including forest growing and management, timber harvesting and haulage, wood chipping, pulp and paper manufacturing among other forms of wood processing activities (DellaSala, 2010, p.103). It is noted that forest industries are Australia’s second largest manufacturing industry with an annual turnover of about $23 billion. The industry contributes around 0.7 percent to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 5.8 percent of manufacturing output. Statistical information from the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry of the Australian Government indicates that about 80,000 people are directly employed in Australia’s forest and wood products industry, including around 15,000 people in the forestry and logging sectors and about 65,000 people in the wood manufacturing sectors (Bennett & Adams, 2004, p.581). Gunns Ltd is noted to be one of the world’s largest exporters of hardwood chips from the Tasmania’s old-growth forests. From these assertions, it can be noted that wood chipping in Tasmania forest has immense benefits to the individuals in the region, the employees. However, a majority of Australians view these activities of forestry exploitation as destructive and are fighting for the protection of Tasmania’s natural heritage (Krien, 2010, p.67). Through application of the stewardship model or approach in the analysis of the activities of wood chipping in Tasmania forests, ecosystem services, well being, social and cultural practices ought to be put in consideration. This implies that regulatory services, supporting services, provisioning and cultural services have to be adopted in order to enhance human well being, maintaining ecosystem services, measuring and managing ecosystem disturbances, minimizing exposure to human and natural hazards and reducing vulnerability of ecosystems and human populations. Photograph 1: A view of part of Tasmanian Rainforest trees (Flanagan, 2007). Source: http://www.touristmaker.com/islands/tasmania.html Tasmania’s ancient forests are seriously threatened by a wood chip industry which reduces them to throw-away paper products. The forests are noted to contain gigantic eucalyptus trees, some of the tallest hardwood trees in the world, and are the home to many endangered species. Gunns Ltd is an Australian corporation which controls 85 per cent of the logging in Tasmania (Chapin, Kofinas & Folke, 2009, p. 103). As the world’s largest exporter of hardwood chips, it exports over four million tons of ancient forest wood chips every year (mainly to the Japanese paper industry) with more than 65 per cent sourced from high-conservation value forests. It is worthwhile comprehending that the massive clearance of the ancient forests in Tasmania is an ecological disaster. A large population of Australians has recognized this issue and wants the Tasmania’s forests to be conserved. 2. Background of Wood Chipping in Tasmania Forests Export wood chipping in Tasmania began in 1972 though there was intense opposition by individuals, environmental groups and non-governmental agencies who could see the long term consequences for the Australian state’s forests. In fact, it is indicated that it was under the Great Western Tiers that the initial ‘stop woodchip’ campaign in Australia got underway, as early as 1971. Regardless of this move, few people were cognizant of what the Woodchip Bill insinuated for Tasmania’s future (Australia Parliament Senate, 1985, p.19). In a series of group representations in a bid to halt wood chipping in Tasmania, members of the Tasmanian Conservation Trust (TCT) which was formed in 1968 besought the government to make it mandatory for the ships to rinse their ballast tanks on the way to Japan, giving an explanation of the threat of introducing voracious new species (Berkmoes, 2008, p.99). These views were overlooked by the government and this led to the coastal regions of Tasmania to be plagued by the Japanese sea star, rice grass and seaweeds. Originally, wood chippers, Tasmanian Pulp & Forest Holdings on the East Coast, Australian Newsprint Mills in the Derwent Valley, Northern Woodchips and Australian Pulp Manufacturers in the north, processed the waste wood from saw mills (Vaisutis, 2009, p. 1065). As the full potential of the wood chipping was noted, this was viewed as less commercially feasible. This meant that forests had to be felled so as to feed the increasing “benevolence’ of the wood chipping activity. By the end of 1980, it is indicated that the annual trade to Japan had risen to about 2.9 million cubic meters of Tasmanian timber. Public statements on the costs and benefits of the export woodchip industry were not released before the State’s forests were handed over to it and there was no detailed information concerning environmental conservation. The economic viability of the industry was never scrutinized before the rushed and ill-advised contracts were signed (Lawrence & Davies, 2010, p.101). There has been an increase in wood chipping since the 1970s as indicated below: Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Forest Products Survey. It is noted that tax payers were exploited as they paid to have the wood chippers destroy their forests while scores of small sawmills were taken over or shut down and the actual number of jobs in the industry dwindled. There was now a consistent demand for pulp wood and the generation burning system was applied across the state (Chapin, Kofinas & Folke, 2009, p. 88). Regardless of this, follow up surveys soon indicated that in some Tasmanian forests, clear felling followed by ‘regen’ burning was not yielding a homogeneous regeneration, especially in regions of the drier East Coast and on the Central Highlands. The environmental critique of forest mismanagement in Tasmania forests relating to wood chipping encompassed environmental, social and economic impacts. Ecological concerns were soil erosion, declining soil fertility, reduction in water quality, depletion of plant and animal species and the introduction of weeds and fire. Photograph 2 below shows that forest management in Tasmania is out of control. Source: http://www.safecom.org.au/flanagan-gunns.htm (Richard, 2007). There were social impacts such as loss of wilderness, loss of undisturbed view-fields, social dislocation and increased stress on the roads. The economic concern was that royalties did not cover costs of regeneration, loss of resources and that land clearance was still being rewarded by taxation incentives (Connors, 1999, p.51). Most of the Tasmanian woodchips come from the tall eucalyptus forests rich in biodiversity. It is the exploitation of these species that has sparked most of the battles between loggers and conservationists have occurred. This assertion has an implication that Tasmanian public has a crude perception of the modern forest-related facets. The escalating conflict of interests concerning forest conservation and management has been facilitated by the war between the modern, rational progressive forces of development versus the irrational, emotional anti-development resistance (Berkmoes, 2008, p.85). There is a need for integration of commercial, environmental and community needs which will result in a prosperous forestry enterprise. The photo below represents a mobile wood chipper, it can be shown that it destroys all trees underneath it. Source: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5348a2.htm (Struttmann, 2004) 3. Case Study: Wood Chipping in Tasmania Forests Tasmanian forests form an important regional coverage of Australia and are noted for their intensive growth of eucalyptus species of trees. Wood chipping export began as early as 1972 though there were groups, organizations and individuals who opposed the move by the government to endorse it (Evans, 2008, p.106). This affirmation has an implication that there were early cases of organizations, agencies and people who had the spirit of protecting the future of Tasmanian forests, through sustainable livelihoods framework and emerging stewardship framework. For instance, Tasmanian Conservation Trust (TCT) which was formed in 1968 argue that the government had to impose restrictions on wood chipping so as to make it mandatory for the ships to rinse their ballast tanks on the way to Japan. This was aimed at conserving the ecology of the regions traversed by the exploiters of Tasmanian forests. The map below shows the State forest in Tasmania. Source: http://www.bonzle.com/c/a?a=p&p=57233&cmd=sp#map There were, and still there are controversial views concerning wood chipping in Australia, especially in Tasmanian forests. The regime of clear felling of trees in the Tasmanian forests with an aim of exporting wood chips to the Japanese market and other parts of the world sparked controversy. As stated previously, rational individuals who had a sense for the future of the state’s natural resources were against the move by the irrational individual and bodies, particularly the government in exploitation of Tasmanian forests. These conflicts of interest are sparked by the regime of clear felling of the eucalyptus trees in Tasmania forests. There are conflicts over the livelihood and wellbeing of the communities around the forests and ecological sustainability needs. The effects have been very intense; in fact McConchie (2009) states that 92 per cent of Australian old growth has been destroyed. Worse still, of the 8 per cent that remains 4 percent is within national parks and conservation reserves (McConchie, P, 2009, p.98). 3.1 Socio-ecological System in Tasmania Forest Wood chipping in Tasmanian forests has a negative impact in terms of ecological analysis. Forests are a growing reality and there are many adaptive systems which ought to be considered in order to facilitate conservation of forests not only in Tasmania but in other parts of the world (Petheram, Stephen & Gilmour, 2004, p. 139). Ecological stewardship is imperative as it promotes the well being of people in the regions under analysis (Tasmania forests), social and economic sustainability that in turn ensures that the communities in region adopt adaptive feedback mechanisms and resilience so as to suit their diversified needs. The ecology of forests involves sustainable conservation of the eucalyptus trees which are the main target in the Tasmania forests with an aim of attaining climax vegetation (Connors & Hutton, 1999, p.87). This means that through the sustaining forest management and implementation of policies to impinge on wood chipping, mature and stable species of the exploited trees will grow over time. 3.2 Disturbances Disturbances create unpredictable and rapid changes in the ecological system, social and economic lives of the individuals. This affirmation implies that wood chipping in Tasmania forests will have diverse effects on the environmental stability of the region, the economic and even social lives of the residents (because of the contrasting views that they have concerning wood chipping). Disturbances are noted to disrupt the ecological and social adaptations and are usually triggered by the complex interactions of forces such as power and history. In this context, Tasmanian forests are destroyed because the government has given consent to Japanese firms and other companies to cut trees and export the woodchips. It is worthwhile noting that resilience in ecological processes is linked to social resilience (Vulcz, 2003, p.25). Ecological and social disturbances can be facilitated by a variety of factors; for instance, climatic changes, changes in demography, technological advancements and political or economic policies. For instance, clear felling of trees in Tasmanian forests for purposes of wood chipping will adversely affect the climatic conditions of the region, this means that agricultural productivity will be affected and might, in the long run, cause food shortages (IFA, 2005, p.7). The situation would be worse if there is a positive demographic change (through increase in population) as people will encroach on the forests so as to create space for their dwelling places. Technological, political and economic changes can also be disruptive if they are implemented against the need to protect the old growth forests of Tasmania. It is projected that clear felling of old growth forests will have negative effects in Tasmania based on the following detailed statistical representation; Source: http://www.forestrytas.com.au/uploads/File/pdf/clearfell_oldgrowth_reports/alternatives_summary_web_2.pdf 3.3 Slow and Fast Variables Changes in both slow and fast variables influence environmental impacts, ecosystem services, and social impacts which together are facets that directly affect the well-being of people. Slow variables are exogenous and affect the ecological and social systems of the forests over a relatively longer period of time (Lawrence & Davies, 2010, p.106). For instance, in this context old growth forests have been clear felled since early 1970s and this has resulted in unstable climatic conditions. Fast variables on the other are short term and are basically induced by human factors, for instance the political policies implemented by the Australian government in relation to wood chipping in Tasmanian forests. Various agencies and individuals fight for abolition of wood chipping but the government (political sovereignty) limits their actions and therefore negatively impacts on the sustainability of the forests in Tasmania (Petheram, Stephen & Gilmour, 2004, p. 141). These affirmations indicate that there is a linkage between slow and fast variables as far as socio-ecological aspects are concerned. This means that there is a need for developing a socio-ecological framework for planning and stewardship. This will make it certain that any sustainable solution to a resource issue ought to be compatible with the prevailing social and ecological conditions and their likely future changes (Thompson & Tracy, 1994, p.6). Sustainable resource stewardship has to be multifaceted so as to put in consideration ecological, social, economic and cultural variables by assessing their effects on the sustainability of Tasmanian forests in Australia. Flexible policies have to be adopted because of the increasingly changing fast and slow variables. This will ensure that appropriate ecologically sustaining decisions and policies are implemented and modified to suit the sustenance of human well-being. 3.4 Feedbacks In order to facilitate ecological, social and economic sustainability, there is the need to have adaptive responses to disturbances and hazard; these encompass positive and negative feedbacks (Bennett & Adams, 2004, p.593). Negative feedbacks are often socially desirable while positive feedbacks are socially undesirable. Positive feedbacks, also called amplifying feedbacks, augment changes in process rates where interacting variables or components cause one another to change in the same direction. For instance, wood chipping in Australia was enhanced by the increasing demand from Japanese markets and political goodwill of the Australian government. Negative feedbacks in this case are the campaigns by the environmental organizations and individuals who feel that Tasmanian forests ought to be conserved. The policies implemented by companies who clear fell and regenerate the forests are also negative or stabilizing feedbacks since they result in reduction of the vegetation cover in the forests. 3.5 Adaptation In this case study on wood chipping in Tasmanian forests, adaptation will be assessed from sociological and ecological points of view. This is because there is interplay between social and ecological effects of wood chipping to the people and the environment within which they live (Horne & Hickey, 1991, p.125). Social aspects deal with the behavioral adjustments by individuals to their environment while ecologists view it as genetic changes in a population so as to adjust to the environment. There is a need for developing an adaptive capacity so as to foster biological, economic and cultural diversity through protection of the forests. Through assessment of the vulnerability of the forests and wild animal to ecological extinction, loss of biodiversity and socioeconomic or cultural problems, better stratagems concerning adaptation and resilience can be adopted. For instance, sustaining the slow ecological variables and paying much attention to the needs of the disadvantages segments of the society. 3.6 Well-being of Tasmanian Forests (sustainable livelihood) Sustainability of the socio-ecological systems of the Tasmanian forests can be effectively executed through an ecosystem stewardship model. This will encompass facilitation of the well-being of the people and the forests. There is a conflict of interest over livelihoods, deforestation and the political power from the government (Horne & Hickey, 1991 p. 123). It is difficult to restore the old growth rainforest trees in entirety so as to create sustainable habitats and biodiversity in regions that are inhabited by human beings. Wood chipping has risen to be an important source of job opportunities to the local people around the Tasmanian forest belt. This means that labor; production and the organizational culture of the locals have been modified and may not easily forego their activities and livelihood so as to adopt a regime of managing ecological sustainability (Connors & Hutton, 1999, p.105). Forests are less valued and this means that it is difficult to transform their livelihoods due to political and economic difficulties in implementing their policies and restrictions from global economic structures (IFA, 2003, p.8). The eventual effect by the move of the government to restrict clear felling of trees for purposes of wood chipping will result in conflicts and escalate into political reforms. Due to bureaucracy or long decision making procedures due to continuous consultations and amendments of laws, the Australian government is likely to fail to implement ecological and socioeconomically sustaining policies. The livelihoods of the Tasmanian forests can be promoted if the political economy sets in place sustainable livelihoods by means of local initiatives and focusing more on protection of the forests. This can be done through ecological conservation campaigns so as to minimize exposure of the forests to vulnerable disturbances. 3.7 Resilience Resilience is an imperative aspect which involves responding to and shaping change in ways that sustain and create fundamental structures, feedbacks which are crucial to the future humanity and the earth’s system. Adoption of a resilience-based ecosystem stewardship model is important in managing Tasmanian forests so as to benefit the society by improving their livelihood and well-being (Vulcz, 2003, p.26) It is worthwhile comprehending that resilience is a concept which embraces change as a basic facet of the way the world works and develops. This means that changing the view of the Tasmanian forests by the irrational and anti-development politicians (the government) and submitting to policies of forest conservation agencies is vital. The resilience stewardship model links the physical, ecological and social processes affecting the forests, the people and the society at large so as develop resilient systems for the good of all stakeholders. Resilience is a long term aspect which can be aimed at recovering or reorganization of the issues under analysis. In this context, there is a need for recovery of the old growth vegetation cover in Tasmanian forests (Bennett & Adams, 2004, p.588). Resilience is dependent on adaptive capacity of the socio-ecological systems and the capacity of people to plan for the long term within the context of uncertainty and change. A balance between stabilizing feedbacks that buffer the ecological system (the forests) against stresses and disturbances and innovation that creates chances for change is created through resilience. Resilience has to be backed up or completed with sustainability management policies so as to enhance transformability and regime shifts in accordance with the societal needs so as to improve their well-being, while at the same time protecting the natural resources (Tasmanian forests) on which people depend on (Thompson & Tracy, 1994, p.7). 4. Conclusion Tasmanian forests face a variety of challenges associated with wood chipping and there is a need to have better stewardship ecological system models to be adopted so as to facilitate ecological sustainability. There is a linkage between social and ecological systems as far as management of forests in Tasmanian forests is concerned. These assertions imply that policies and strategies adopted either directly or indirectly influence the lives of people and the ecological environment in which people live (IFA, 2003, p.8). Wood chipping is significant to people in some way as they can earn income to sustain themselves, though the negative effects of wood chipping outweigh the benefits derived from it. Organizations such as Tasmanian Conservation Trust (TCT) have been established so as to implement appropriate resilience policies to ensure that the livelihood of Tasmanian forests and the society. An analysis of the fast and slow variables in relation to wood chipping in Australia ensures that disturbances are managed. The negative and positive feedbacks resulting from ecological disruptions can then be used as a basis for ensuring that adaptive resilience and transformation stewardship models are used (Petheram, Stephen & Gilmour, 2004, p. 142). Tree felling has been done inn Tasmanian forests for a substantially long period of time (over three decades). It is evident that the uncontrolled clear felling of trees in the forests has had immense negative effects on the social, economic and ecological aspects of the lives of people in Australia. In spite of this, ecological stewardship models present vital information and procedures which can be used to promote the well being of people, the environment and sustainability of the socioeconomic and ecological systems (Newman, 2004, p.21). References Australia. Parliament Senate, 1985, Parliamentary debates, Senate weekly Hansard, Issues 9-10. By Authority. Bennett, L & Adams, M, 2004, Assessment of ecological effects due to forest harvesting: approaches and statistical issues Journal of Applied Ecology Volume 41, Issue 4, pages 585–598, August 2004. Berkmoes, R, 2008, East Coast Australia LONELY PLANET EAST COAST AUSTRALIA Regional Guide Series Edition3, Lonely Planet. Connors, L & Hutton, D, 1999, A history of the Australian environment movement. Cambridge University Press. DellaSala, D, 2010, Temperate and Boreal Rainforests of the World: Ecology and Conservation. Island Press. Evans, J, 2008, The Forests Handbook, Applying Forest Science for Sustainable Management Volume 2 of The Forests Handbook. John Wiley and Sons. F. Stuart Chapin, Gary P. Kofinas and Carl Folke Editors (2009) Principles of Ecosystem Stewardship: Resilience-Based Natural Resource Management in a Changing World, Springer (online) Horne, R & Hickey, J, 1991, Ecological sensitivity of Australian rainforests to selective logging Australian Journal of Ecology Volume 16, Issue 1, pages 119–129, March 1991 IFA, 2003, Australia's first community forest: the battle begins. The Forester, Institute of Foresters of Australia, 44(1), 8. Krien, A, 2010, Into the Woods: The Battle for Tasmania's Forests. Black Inc. Lawrence, S & Davies, P, 2010, An Archaeology of Australia Since 1788 Contributions to Global Historical Archaeology. Springer. McConchie, P, 2009, Old Growth: Australia's Remaining Ancient Forests. Hardie Grant Publishing. Newman, F  2004, HI Tech Wood Stage 4, Reed International Books Australia, Victoria, pp. 16- 24. Petheram, J., Stephen, P. and Gilmour, D, 2004, Collaborative forest management: a review. Australian Forestry 67, 137-146. Vaisutis, J, 2009, Australia Lonely Planet Australia Country Guide Series Edition15, Lonely Planet. Vulcz, R, 2003, Is empowerment of rural communities only rhetoric? The Lavers Hill experience 2000-2003. In: Community Forestry Forum, proceedings, Creswick, 25-26 October 2003, pp. 25-31, http://ariel.ucs.unimelb.edu.au/~johneth/index2.htm. http://www.forestrytas.com.au/uploads/File/pdf/clearfell_oldgrowth_reports/alternatives_summary_web_2.pdf (accessed on September 21, 2011). Read More

Photograph 1: A view of part of Tasmanian Rainforest trees (Flanagan, 2007). Source: http://www.touristmaker.com/islands/tasmania.html Tasmania’s ancient forests are seriously threatened by a wood chip industry which reduces them to throw-away paper products. The forests are noted to contain gigantic eucalyptus trees, some of the tallest hardwood trees in the world, and are the home to many endangered species. Gunns Ltd is an Australian corporation which controls 85 per cent of the logging in Tasmania (Chapin, Kofinas & Folke, 2009, p. 103). As the world’s largest exporter of hardwood chips, it exports over four million tons of ancient forest wood chips every year (mainly to the Japanese paper industry) with more than 65 per cent sourced from high-conservation value forests.

It is worthwhile comprehending that the massive clearance of the ancient forests in Tasmania is an ecological disaster. A large population of Australians has recognized this issue and wants the Tasmania’s forests to be conserved. 2. Background of Wood Chipping in Tasmania Forests Export wood chipping in Tasmania began in 1972 though there was intense opposition by individuals, environmental groups and non-governmental agencies who could see the long term consequences for the Australian state’s forests.

In fact, it is indicated that it was under the Great Western Tiers that the initial ‘stop woodchip’ campaign in Australia got underway, as early as 1971. Regardless of this move, few people were cognizant of what the Woodchip Bill insinuated for Tasmania’s future (Australia Parliament Senate, 1985, p.19). In a series of group representations in a bid to halt wood chipping in Tasmania, members of the Tasmanian Conservation Trust (TCT) which was formed in 1968 besought the government to make it mandatory for the ships to rinse their ballast tanks on the way to Japan, giving an explanation of the threat of introducing voracious new species (Berkmoes, 2008, p.99). These views were overlooked by the government and this led to the coastal regions of Tasmania to be plagued by the Japanese sea star, rice grass and seaweeds.

Originally, wood chippers, Tasmanian Pulp & Forest Holdings on the East Coast, Australian Newsprint Mills in the Derwent Valley, Northern Woodchips and Australian Pulp Manufacturers in the north, processed the waste wood from saw mills (Vaisutis, 2009, p. 1065). As the full potential of the wood chipping was noted, this was viewed as less commercially feasible. This meant that forests had to be felled so as to feed the increasing “benevolence’ of the wood chipping activity. By the end of 1980, it is indicated that the annual trade to Japan had risen to about 2.

9 million cubic meters of Tasmanian timber. Public statements on the costs and benefits of the export woodchip industry were not released before the State’s forests were handed over to it and there was no detailed information concerning environmental conservation. The economic viability of the industry was never scrutinized before the rushed and ill-advised contracts were signed (Lawrence & Davies, 2010, p.101). There has been an increase in wood chipping since the 1970s as indicated below: Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Forest Products Survey.

It is noted that tax payers were exploited as they paid to have the wood chippers destroy their forests while scores of small sawmills were taken over or shut down and the actual number of jobs in the industry dwindled. There was now a consistent demand for pulp wood and the generation burning system was applied across the state (Chapin, Kofinas & Folke, 2009, p. 88). Regardless of this, follow up surveys soon indicated that in some Tasmanian forests, clear felling followed by ‘regen’ burning was not yielding a homogeneous regeneration, especially in regions of the drier East Coast and on the Central Highlands.

The environmental critique of forest mismanagement in Tasmania forests relating to wood chipping encompassed environmental, social and economic impacts.

Read More