Sources of Air Quality Pollutants and Greenhouse Gas Emissions - Case Study Example

A Case Study of Sources of Air Quality Pollutants, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Associated Action Plans at Bootle Docks Throughout the United Kingdom a standard of eventual compliance with other nations of the European Union in a framework of environmental modernization with respect to air quality and pollution controls are being implemented. The modernization strategy is occurring across the continent in order to avert environmental consequences with negative repercussions for both human health, and the climate at large. Across Europe, an initiative is taking place to begin a gradual shift towards emissions standards dependent upon a reorganization of current patterns of urbanization (Ekins & Lees, 2008), as well as technological innovations concerning vehicular emissions and particulates. While not possible overnight, long-term plans have been mandated whereby each country oversees eventual conformity with sustainable pollution goals. This case study concerning the Liverpool port area (Bootle Docks) in terms of air quality and emissions is consistent with an overall initiative begun throughout the continent intended for the purpose of universal improvement of air quality, both in terms of particulate matter and greenhouse emissions. There are broader, international mandates that influence the policies motivating improvement and monitoring of air pollutants, and but ultimately each country is responsible. Member nations of the European Union have agreed to a set of guidelines for the over all improvement of air quality in accordance with a specific timetable, but the details are left to each regional administration. But it then becomes the responsibility of each member nation to attend to its own environmental policy in order to achieve overall standards determined by the Union. Associated action plans for the control of air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions are an integral component of that process. In describing this air quality improvement process, it becomes necessary to describe the project with descriptions of the following six phenomena: 1.) An historical time line. 2.) Environmental hazard review. 3.) Environmental action review. 4.) Environmental improvement techniques. 5.) Summary. 6.) Expansion plans for the site. The report will encompass all of these elements with respect to a particular dock region in the Liverpool area subject to investigation based on the perspective of an environmental consultant. Relevant occurrences, and the consequences of actions taken to improve air quality will be addressed. 1.) An historic outline and time line of air quality action plans for the Liverpool port area concerning emissions control. Since the mid-1980s environmental research has identified links between negative health consequences and existing air pollution levels. Traditionally, this pollution has been related to various forms of smog, smoke, and emissions relating to transportation. Part of the response to these conditions was the establishment of the Environment Agency with responsibility of industrial regulation. Over the course of two decades, the work of this agency has combined with European Union directives in order to slowly reduce the contribution of heavy industry as a source of pollution in the United Kingdom. Later sections will explore in greater detail the impact of these agencies. Regulation and legislation was deemed necessary in part because those most at risk are the very young, as well as the elderly and those suffering from respiratory disorders. There was general acknowledgment that compromise air quality throughout most of Western Europe exacerbates these medical issues through a range of negative health impacts, apart from the possibility of greenhouse gas emissions leading to climate change. For many decades there have been positive growth projections, which reflect the requirements placed upon local planning authorities. Legislation was authored in section 106 for the agreements of the town and country planning act in 1990. That same year also saw the Environment Protection Act. This was later supplemented by the planning and compensation act in 1991 with the intent of monitoring the effects of air quality on the population at large. This was supplemented by the Clean Air Act of 1993. These items of legislation were focused upon the consequences of long-term resulting from increased vehicular traffic, in addition to the output of air conditioning systems and building heaters. Also under consideration was the cumulative impact of these technologies on the local environment. These decisions are in accordance with national, and European mandates (IMPEL, 1992; Goulielmos, 1999; Home, 2007). This led to the implementation of a 10 year improvement policy, in this case specifically initiated by the Liverpool city Council with respect to a range of environmental concerns, but in this specific case the focus is on air quality. This is represented by the intentions described in the Final Air Quality Action plan drawn up by the Liverpool city Council, also abbreviated as AQAP. The reduction of air pollution within the city is directly motivated by legislation affecting the entire United Kingdom, which itself attempts compliance with European air quality standards in the interest of public health and the reduction of greenhouse emissions. This action plan is initiated as part of two stages, AQMA1, and AQMA2, focusing upon the Liverpool city center, and the wider area around Liverpool and rocket junction. This was part of the environment act of 1995, requiring local authorities to make periodic assessments of air quality. A specialized plan of action was deemed necessary as a result of the fact that pollutant concentrations (nitrogen dioxide) were projected to exceed the national target levels of these substances by 2005. So a stepwise program was implemented to specifically address this aspect of air quality. The Environmental act of 1995 for the United Kingdom provides an essential outline for the management of air quality in order to address these concerns. This was later supplemented by the air-quality regulations act in 2000, then followed by an air-quality amendment regulations in 2002. This latter measure codified both objectives and benchmarks dates for achieving pollutant reductions in the interest of air-quality. AQMA1 and AQMA2 were part of an assessment plan initiated in 2003, with a specific focus of reducing nitrogen dioxide levels. At this time, the document was drafted known as the Liverpool first workbook, including a mandate for a Liverpool neighborhood renewal strategy covering comprehensive themes pertaining to employment, education, health as well as environmental concerns. These plans were funded to the amount of £20 million pounds over the course of 2003 and 2004. Late in 2004 (November) government guidance standards were updated concerning the effects of regional planning on pollution control. All development plans are ordered to adhere to sustainable development principles. The next phase of the improvement policy focused upon air-quality projections that will be used in the decision-making process for a later 2005 assessment. Additional research from the Liverpool City Council focused on air pollution reduction was conducted between May and August 2005; to outline what the population believed to be most essential in terms of sources of pollution. Important initiatives out of 2005 include a quantitative survey for the improvement of air quality in Liverpool, including 1200 questionnaires; this and other studies confirm transportation as the largest apparent contributor. However, other sources for pollution include byproducts from cement manufacture, and coal fire power plants. More details concerning these sources will follow in later sections. Out of these findings, regulation became essential. Projections at that time indicated continuous growth of the city center of Liverpool through the year 2008. These plans divided the city into a series of six wards with comprehensive strategies for overall improvement. The need to control pollution has strong implications for motor vehicle traffic, and as a consequence a local transport plan was devised and scheduled for completion by 2005, with further provisions covering the years 2006 through 2011. Included in this plan were Park and Ride schemes intended to improve air quality. 2011 also included the Mersey Ports Master Plan consultation in order to consult multiple organizations with respect to sustainable growth strategies in concordance with these environmental initiatives. 2.) Environmental Hazard Review As stated earlier, among the principal concerns by the architects of air quality improvement initiatives include airborne levels of nitrogen dioxide, but there are also other harmful particulates and associated molecules with the potential to damage health, in addition to these factors and the possibility of greenhouse gases, the Sefton Council adds to that the issue of noise pollution (Sefton Council, 2012). The concern over nitrogen dioxide is largely due to the statutory local air-quality management framework, and it has been noted by the Sefton Council that the local area is non compliant in some regions with respect to controlling levels of this contaminant. This is also the case with levels of fine solid particles. Industrial byproducts also represent potential air-quality hazards, which will be discussed at the end of this section. Other than nitrogen dioxide, air-quality standards specifically document the following substances as constituting environmental hazards which legislation should address: a.Benzene. b.Carbon monoxide. c.1:3 butadiene. d.Sulfur dioxide. e.Lead. f. Carbon dioxide (as a greenhouse gas) g. Ozone These substances represent problem areas for which mitigation strategies must be devised in order to achieve compliance with national air-quality standards, which are themselves based upon European Union standards for environmental improvement. As discussed previously, measures are already in place which have reduced industrial pollution sources in accordance with strategies extant since the 1980s. But recent investigations indicate that considerable changes are still needed in order to put the region and the country on track to reduce air pollution resulting from the total aggregate of transportation. Car exhaust, in addition to slow weathering of tires and pavement will slowly cause a buildup of particulate matter that constitutes a noteworthy environmental hazard if it is allowed to accumulate over the course of decades. In addition to these gaseous pollutants, special categories were also created to identify and measure levels of airborne particulates based on size, of particular concern are particles designated PM10. Provisions to monitor these particles, in addition to the gases mentioned previously are described as part of assessment updates for the AQMA provisions identified in both 2007 and 2008 updates. The consequence of these hazards remaining in place without remediation in the long-term can be reflected in a report by the Sefton city Council estimating a 10 year life expectancy difference within a range of 3 miles. More research needs to be conducted in order to determine whether this is strictly a result of air-quality, but environmental influences are undoubtedly the most probable causative factor in early mortality (Sefton, 2012). Based on monitoring efforts concerning these environmental hazards, it is also necessary to include assessment results concerning the status of these monitoring efforts using the Sefton area as a model for the various types of emissions under discussion. Benzene: levels detected were negligible, and it is unlikely that benzene levels will surpass national benchmarks in the future, and has therefore been discontinued. 1,3 butadiene: nearby industrial sources do not produce this molecule in sufficient quantities, and within the Sefton area, it is not presently monitored. The known sources for the substance are not close enough to pose an environmental risk. Lead: National air-quality strategies mentioned lead as a dangerous emission, with a national standard of 0.5µgm-3 as an annual mean. Observed levels by December of 2008 were half of this nationally mandated maximum threshold. Therefore, the likelihood of failing to meet the national objective was deemed negligible, as a result it is not actively monitored in the Sefton area. Carbon monoxide: again, measurements that have been conducted are below the nationally mandated thresholds, and active monitoring of carbon monoxide has been discontinued in the Sefton area. Sulfur dioxide: there has been active concern over concentrations of this contaminant, with monitoring stations established in the same region as the Bootle docks, but consistently low levels were detected. For this contaminant, there are annual averages but historically there has not been a national standard for averages of sulfur dioxide. Here there was anticipation of an environmental risk to the Sefton area, and monitoring efforts have been continued, but primarily for the St. Joan of Arc school monitoring station in Bootle. This is due primarily to maritime ships burning high sulfur diesel in the port of Liverpool (Mahoney et al. 2008). Other areas have found sulfur dioxide to be below hazardous levels. PM10: In the case of particulate matter, near the St. Joan of arc monitoring station which covers the Bootle docks, in the 1990s there were noted instances of particulate levels exceeding national standards. However, the number of instances whereby particulate levels are allowed to exceed threshold standards have not been surpassed. This is also the case at a monitoring station at South port town hall. However, another monitoring station At Crosby Rd., North recorded particulate levels above mandated standards, and these exceedances occurred more often than regulations permitted. This is due to vehicular road traffic, and monitoring for particles of the size will be continued, and dedicated air quality management is deemed necessary. This is also the case at the Millers bridge monitoring station. Particulates have long been an environmental concern in the UK (Klopfer, 1989; Kennedy et al. 1998). Nitrogen dioxide: dedicated air quality management strategies for nitrogen dioxide have been deemed necessary due to contamination. Management strategies are necessary for Bootle docks, Millers bridge, Lathom Close Princess Way, and the Seaforth area. Ozone: As for ozone, findings indicate that ozone levels will require international support in order to produce measurable reductions according to Mahoney et al. 2008. But monitoring has been conducted historically. No action has been declared since objective standards are not mandated in air-quality regulations. Most of these restrictions are mandated under the Pollution Prevention and Control Act of 1999. As for Industrial emissions, near the area in question compliance appears high, but cargoes from inbound ships contain materials such as petroleum coke, a supplementary fuel source for coal fire power plants, a dusty material with high sulfur content. Another possibility is known as cement clinker, a dusty and alkaline byproduct of the kilns used in cement production. Continuous traffic from ships carrying them may negatively contribute to air quality over time (Air Quality, 2012). 3.) Environmental Action Review An Air Quality Action Plan was derived for Liverpool as a result of projections that the nitrogen dioxide levels were (for the year of 2005) set to surpass the national target levels for the UK, and thus broader European standards as well. These concerns are in part based upon estimates that maritime transport is responsible for nearly 3% of total carbon emissions globally. But traffic from other vessels subsequently, and the effects of stationary ships also contribute to these emissions (Zis et al. 2006). Monitoring is conducted by council-mandated monitoring stations, including the St. Joan of Arc station (nitrogen oxides and particulates), Crosby Road North, Millers Bridge, Princess Way, and Hawthorne Road/Church Junction. Each measures nitrogen oxides and particulates except that last, which only measures nitrogen (Sefton.gov.uk., 2014). The action plans described above provide assessment tools for the purpose of countermeasure development. An overall summary of the actions taken in the Liverpool region constitute an appraisal of progress made in pursuit of environmental benchmarks, and corrective actions taken to ensure that the region is on track to meet the countrys standards. In large part the strategies meant to achieve the environmental objectives include a dissemination from broader national guidelines which themselves are dependent upon European mandates. These broad principles trickle down into a series of regional improvement plans with regular monitoring and re-assessment in order to provide the best possible chance of compliance, and to correct projected shortfalls. The strategies inherent in these monitoring practices are all rooted in early pollution prevention mandates stemming from European legislation; notable examples include Enforcement of the aforementioned Clean Air Act of 1993, and the Pollution Prevention and Control Act of 1999. Among these environmental actions taken is a master plan consultation conducted by Mersey Ports in order to broaden the perspective of viewpoints taken into account for the purpose of these schedules. At this point the planning for these initiatives must take into account economic development. At the local level, many of the objectives intended for the Liverpool region and similar areas attempted to address the need to generate local jobs, and to increase the skill set available to the community. Economic revitalization will depend upon the procurement of skilled labor, in addition to the training of local talent to represent that skilled labor. But these economic initiatives must be considered with respect to environmental impact assessments. Growth plans for Peel port, Mersey ports, and other docks must take into account the environmental impacts to residents, as well as the natural environment (Ng & Song, 2010). Environmental objectives will be achieved through the development of the ports system, but by deliberately planning the development of nature reserves; such as plans for the Seaforth nature reserve included in the Mersey ports master plan, for example. Out of the 292 responses to the Mersey Ports Master plan, input was received from a wide range of localities; from Liverpool itself to Bootle. Questions were intended to gauge community support for the degree of development deemed desirable. The plan with respect to the environment the development of a protocol for addressing environmental complaints related to port operations, in addition to joint operations with environmental health, for the purpose of addressing complaints and providing remedies to incidents and environmental concerns relating to operations at the ports. This will be accompanied by a policy of environmental monitoring with emphasis towards dust emissions, in addition to noise pollution. With respect to traffic congestion and activities at ports which may contribute to air pollution, the action plan constitutes an investigation on ways to reduce reliance on modes of travel that exacerbate issues of pollution, in addition to developing a variety of freight solutions to create flexible alternatives to pre-existing transit options which create dust, gas, and noise emissions found to be injurious to human and environmental health. Additional development in terms of surface access is also proposed, which will require negotiation for additional government funding in order to expand surface transit options, and to develop an infrastructure that will improve the efficiency of these options in the interest of reducing unnecessary traffic, transit, and emissions as a result. As mentioned earlier, the will also be evaluated in terms of opportunities for in local Green assets. In addition, the reserve will be studied with respect to the public interest in expanding and maintaining it. To expand or modernize the ports must entail monitoring and inspection policies including, but not limited to a visitation of the sites in question on a regular basis. This is necessary for City Councilmen to assemble evidence in order to track whether and to what extent the existing policies are in compliance with national and international regulations. A census of employees was taken associated with the port estates, including designations for independent dock laborers, and inventories of the most likely categories of cargo and their potential uses. It was necessary to ascertain how cargo enters and is processed through the ports before it is possible to formulate effective strategies. Among these monitoring objectives was a site visit to a monitoring station at Millers bridge, Bootle (in addition to A565 Derby Road). Reports were compiled in detailing the function, contents, and structures of the ports and facilities it used to process incoming cargo. Monitoring stations were set up and examine in order to determine air quality in Sefton. The Bootle area is one of three air quality management areas that are targeted for monitoring and assessment. Other areas include the Waterloo region along Crosby Road., North, which should be monitored for PM10. Another region includes the Seaforth area along Princess Way and Crosby Road., South, which should be monitored for nitrogen dioxide (Mahoney et al. 2008). In addition, certain cleanliness measures may be applicable in terms of diminishing opportunities for weathering of roadways which produces fine particles; water sprays in vehicle washing our ideas that may intercept these particles before they enter the air. Other improvement measures may include creating barriers to restrict the spread of particulates; such as working behind stockpiles, in addition to sheeting of stockpiles and vehicles. If roadways are washed more often, this may eliminate particulates before they become airborne. As a preventative measure, industrial and transportation options may be suspended during periods of high wind, to prevent particulate dispersal (Air Quality, 2012). 4.) Environmental Improvement Techniques As stated earlier, maritime transport is responsible for at least 3% of greenhouse gas emissions. Most of the techniques used to curtail these problems within an urban context relates to efficiency calculations to redesign the roadways and incentivize traffic to reduce concentrations of exhaust and emissions where possible. Similar improvement strategies are needed in order to reduce the contribution from strictly maritime sources at port cities (Cannon, 2008; National Policy Statement for Ports, 2012; Tseng, P.H., 2013) which remain significant sources of air pollution (Han, 2010). These techniques, maritime perspective include the reduction of speed for ships in transit and cold ironing when ships are berthing in order to reduce these emissions. The effectiveness of these techniques depends upon the size of the ship, the type of fuel, and operating parameters and policies relating to how fast the ship is permitted to travel under what circumstances (APICE plan, 2013). Monitoring is conducted as described above, through dedicated stations. If an area does not conform with established pollution standards, the Council declares that area an Air Quality Management Area, and an action plan is specifically developed to achieve conformity. For the Sefton community a warning response described as the air watch alert system permits city authorities to alert the community at large during situations where pollution levels rise above safe thresholds. The available information does not indicate any significant industrial contribution to the targeted pollutant levels in the recent past, nor are they projected for the future. Part two mentions pollution sources from petroleum coke used in coal plants, so an improvement option would be to modernize these plants in general. To achieve this, a proposal exists for the Alexandra docks biomass power station project. This initiative can create what are termed green collar jobs with the potential to generate electricity for up to 250,000 homes per year. The biomass use has the potential to reduce the release of greenhouse gases in the area, by an amount projected as high as 450 tonnes annually, while simultaneously generating an estimated 1000 GW per year. Using the nearby ports to transport its renewable wood-based biomass fuel, this initiative will simultaneously encourage further expansions of port operations (Air Quality, 2012). 5.) Summary European Union regulations have informed United Kingdom pollution mandates, which must be filtered down to the local level in the form of projected environmental benchmarks. Each member country is permitted to formulate their own policy with respect to how policy benchmarks will be met, but a trend of overall progress has been mandated across Britain and most of Europe (Kousoulidou et al. 2008). This requires a series of air quality monitoring initiatives that oversee the current status of toxic emissions in the United Kingdom at the national, and local levels to document data from monitoring stations concerning the target pollutants. Considerable funding from the European Union has been dedicated to these monitoring, and modeling efforts (Darbra, et al. 2007). Projections based on this data are then used to inform policymakers. Based upon observed levels of target pollutants for the larger Liverpool area and constituent districts including the Bootle docks, current strategies appear to be largely effective with most of the airborne toxins on the official list described in part two of this report. Chief items of concern are primarily particulate matter and sulfur dioxide. The sulfur is a result of diesel fuel burned by maritime vessels, and the particulates are the result of weathering on roadways as a consequence of vehicular traffic. The other notably toxic molecules appear to be the result of industry, the emissions of which have largely been curtailed due to environmental mandates. Maritime vessels arrive from all parts of the world, and vehicular traffic is a functional necessity, so these areas of air quality will continue to be monitored while solutions are continuously sought. 6.) Expansion Plans The primary repercussions from plans to expand any of the docks mentioned in this report are apparent based upon the current information regarding which pollutants are still problematic: sulfur dioxide and particulates. Toxic compounds from heavy industry are heavily regulated, but there are still emissions concerns as a result of transportation: if the Bootle docks grow larger, this creates more opportunities for more ships that will burn diesel fuel containing sulfur dioxide, and it will also necessitate more ground transport options in order to distribute the cargo delivered by the ships. This will by necessity put more stress on the roadways as well as the tires of the vehicles in question which over time, will lead to higher buildups of particulate matter. But without transportation, it is not possible to sustain modern conveniences (House of Commons Transport Committee, 2007). Additional measures also include particulate traps and oxidation catalysts for new vehicles, as well as regulations promoting vehicles with more stringent emissions standards for nitrous oxides. Education programs can foster what may be termed calm driving, to discourage aggressive utilization of the roadways which produces an aggregate of additional exhaust and weathering (Sjödin & Fridell, 2007). Economic plans to enhance the livelihood of residents through increased commerce and job opportunities entails creative solutions to remain in compliance with necessary environmental policies (The Third Local Transport Plan for Merseyside, 2011). One possibility is to impose additional levels of separation between various transit options in order to prevent concentrations of sulfur and particulates from building up to levels threatening to human and environmental health. This might hypothetically be accomplished by dispersing maritime docks, and using modernized railroads to supplement car and truck transportation schemes. The cargo transported by a single rail line has the potential to move significant freight, but with less ensuing traffic. Further research will be necessary to determine whether particulate emissions from this method would indeed be less than truck transport, and by how much. Possible repercussions in the interests of reducing sulfur pollution from concentrations of ships arriving at presently existing ports could be increased prices resulting from additional transportation costs if a new system of docks were developed and dispersed around the country supported by rail traffic. These concerns could be partially alleviated if adjustments to the transportation system are gradual. Specific measures to reduce maritime pollution includes redesign or replacement of current ships with those able to burn low sulfur fuels, which can also be supplemented by sulfur scrubbers. Nitrous oxide reduction systems applicable to most cargo ships already exist, and both cargo ships and vehicles could theoretically be equipped with particulate traps (Sjödin & Fridell, 2007). Bibliography Air Quality Case Study – Bootle Docks, 2012. The Port of Liverpool. The University of Salford. APICE plan. 2013. Maritime and port emissions mitigation for air quality improvement. APICE Plan Barcelona. Ekins, P., Lees, E. 2008. The impact of EU policies on energy use in and the evolution of the UK built environment. Energy Policy. Department of Geography, King’s College London, Strand. Darbra, R.M., Pittam, N., K.A., Royston, Darbra, J.P., Journee, H. 2007. Survey on environmental monitoring requirements of European ports. Goulielmos, A.M., 1999. EUROPEAN POLICY ON PORT ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION. Global Nest: the Int. J. Vol 2, No 2, pp 189-197, 2000 Copyright© 2000 GLOBAL NEST Printed in Greece. All rights reserved. Home, R. 2007. A Short Guide to European Environmental Law. Papers in Land Management. No.4. 2007. A Guide to European Environmental Law. Www.anglisa.ac.uk Han, C.H., 2010. Strategies to Reduce Air Pollution in Shipping Industry. The Asian Journal of Shipping and Logistics ● Volume 26 Number 1 June 2010 pp. 007-030. House of Commons Transport Committee, 2007. The Ports Industry in England and Wales. Volume 1. Second Report of Session 2006–07. Ordered by The House of Commons to be printed 15 January 2007. IMPEL (1992) ‘Principles of Environmental Enforcement’. Europe.eu. http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/impel Kennedy, T., A. J. Ghio, W. Reed, J. Samet, J. Zagorski, J. Quay, J. Carter, L. Dailey, J. R. Hoidal, Devlin, R.B. 1998. Copper-dependent inflammation and nuclear factorkB activation by particulate air pollution. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 19:366–378. Klopfer, J. 1989. Effects of environmental air pollution on the eye. J Am Optom Assoc 1989;60:773–8. [PubMed] Kousoulidou, M., Ntziachristos, L., Mellios, G., Samaras, Z. 2008. Road-transport emission projections to 2020 in European urban environments, Atmospheric Environment 42(32): 7465–75 (2008) Liverpool City Council, 2007. Air Quality Action Plan: Final Document. Mahoney, G., Marrs, R., Windel, H. 2008. Sefton MBC Air Quality Review and Assessment Progress Report 2008. Sefton City Council. Mersey Ports, 2012. Mersey Ports Master Plan Interim Consultation Report. 2012. National Policy Statement for Ports, 2012. Presented to Parliament pursuant to section 5(9) of the Planning Act 2008 . Sefton Council. 2012. OVERVIEW AND SCRUTINY MANAGEMENT BOARD. Port Master Plan Working Group. FINAL REPORT. Ng, A.K.Y., Song, S., 2010. The environmental impacts of pollutants generated by routine shipping operations on ports. Ocean & Coastal Management 53 (2010) 301e311. Sefton.gov.uk, 2014. Air Pollution. Sefton Council. http://www.sefton.gov.uk/breathingspace/: Accessed: 3/12/2014. Sjödin, Å., Fridell, E., 2007. SPATIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PORT DEVELOPMENT. Swedish Environmental Research Institute. The third Local Transport Plan for Merseyside. 2011. Freight Stretegy. LTP Support Unit Tseng, P.H. 2013. A Qualitative Investigation of Low Emission Port Development. Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol.9, 2013. U.S. Container Ports and Air Pollution: A Perfect Storm. 2008. An Energy Futures, Inc. Study By James S. Cannon. © 2008: Energy Futures, Inc. Zis, T., North, R.J., Angeloudis, P., Bell, M.G.H. 2012. A SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE OPTIONS FOR THE REDUCTION OF VESSEL EMISSIONS IN PORTS. Read More