The Effects of Globalisation on the Use of Common Resources - The Democratic Republic of Congos Forests - Coursework Example

 Table of contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………1 Globalisation: controversies and opportunities…………………………………………..3 The economic, political and environmental landscape of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)......................................................................………………………………5 The dynamics of common resources……………………………………………………...7 Globalisation impact in the use of natural resources: The case of Democratic Republic of Congo´s forests…………………………………….8 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………12 Referencing………………………………………………………………………………13 "Protеcting and rеstoring forеst еcosystеms, and arrеsting global warming, arе mattеrs of lifе and dеath," . Wangari Maathai, Kеnyan nobel prize еnvironmеntal activist Introduction Globalisation is multifaceted phenomenon that has been associated with both positive as well as negative consequences. On the one hand, proponents view globalisation as essential to end the multitude of factors linked with underdevelopment around the world. On the other hand, opponents of globalisation have connected the phenomenon with the global increase in impoverishment and inequality. In addition, there exist numerous meanings and definitions of the term globalisation. At its broadest, globalisation is “the process of creating or intensifying social, political, economic and environmental networks” (Vertovec, 2003, pg 2). However, for the purpose of this essay, globalisation will be defined as the rapid increase of transnational economic activities. The focus of this essay will be on globalisation in its economic context and how that impact the utilisation of global common resources at large and how it affects the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) forestry sector in particular. This essay will first of all evaluate the debates on the role of globalisation specifically in relation to developing countries. Essentially, this part of the essay will focus on presenting the views of the proponents and opponents of globalisation. The objective will be to highlight the challenges and opportunities that are brought about to developing countries through globalisation. Secondly, a brief political, economic and environmental background of the DRC will be highlighted. This is done with intention of understanding the factors that impact the country ´s forests. To this end, focus will be on the country economic riches, the political unrest that country has faced since independence and the role that the forests play to the livelihoods of the country’s citizens. Thirdly, the essay will examine the dynamics behind the notion of common resources. After a brief definition of what common resources are, focus will be directed on forests as a common resource. The challenges and opportunities of good management of this natural resource will be presented. It is also in this section of the essay that the issue of enclosures will be discussed with the intention of highlighting why the establishment of enclosures has lead to massive destruction of common resources. Finally the essay will look at the impact of globalisation in the forest of the DRC. Attempts will be made to present a balanced view and hence both the negative as well as positive impacts will be identified. Furthermore, this section will also present potential solutions to limit the negative impacts of globalisation in the DRC forest. A summary of the main points that emerged in the essay will be the crux of the conclusion. Globalisation: controversies and opportunities In developing countries such as the DRC, there is a desperate need for foreign exchange and international investment for the purpose of economic development (Vajpeyi, 2001, pg 1). A key components of globalisation in the developing world involves the intoduction of means that entice and enable international corporations to operate in the countries. This opening up of economies to international commerce is often refered to as trade liberalization. In many developing countries, having witnessed the failure of the government as the main driver of development, international corporations are seen as an alternative to bring about prosperity and increase the standards of living. Insutions such as the World Bank hence encourage this notion of trade liberalization and powerful developed countries such as the United Stated attach the opening up of the economy to international trade as a precondition for granting of development aid. The controversies to this notion of trade liberalisation emerge because while the developing countries open up their economies, developed countries maintain stringent regulations that make it difficult for developing countries to trade profitably with them. This skewed phenomenon in trade liberalisation have lead some to argue that “developing countries are mere puppets of the globalisation phenomenon, they are yet to learn how to direct and conduct the process of globalisation to their maximum benefit” (Coetzee, 2005, pg119). One area of the economy that has been fundamentally opened up in developing countries for international trade is the utilisation of natural resources as an economic income generator. To this end, licences have been granted to international corporations to engage in activities such as fishing, mining and logging. However, opponents of globalisation argue that the involvement of these international corporations in natural resource has lead to widespread exploitation and environmental destruction. Indeed, according to Coetzee (2005, pg 1) “global corporate business are responsible for environmental catastrophies that hinder sustainable development”. Sustainable development in relation to the environment is essentially about using natural common resources in such a way that they are not depleted for the future generation. The fear is therefore with the current level of global capitalist activities, natural resources for future generation will be depleted. Opponents of globalisation therefore contend that it is a threat to sustainable development arguing that increase in economic activity has been associated with the deterioration of environmental quality (Speth, 2003, pg 2). Such deterioration in environmental quality has been sparked factors such as over fishing and deforestation. There is also a notable tendency for corrupt officials in developing to put the need for economic development as well personal enrichment ahead of the need to conserve forests. Therefore, the regulations that exist on paper to control activities of international corporations are rarely put into practice in reality. Concessions to the rights to logging have also been given illegally to international corporations who have willingly accepted to give bribes to the officials granting the concessions. The weakness in government control over the activities of international corporations have lead to these companies exploiting the liberties by exporting some of the wood through illegal channels and not contributing to the development of the areas they operate in through activities such as building of schools and health care centres. Due to the potential adverse impact of globalisation on social, economic, cultural and especially ecological aspects of human life and other living species on earth, how businesses conduct themselves in global expansion has become a topical issue and sometimes controversial issue. Globalisation is especially viewed to have a significant impact on the environment. For example forests cover 20% of continental surface area and as such, any drastic alterations to their existence impact the earth’s ecological well being (Vajpeyi, 2001 pg 1). Heavily subsidised multinationals cut over 1 million hectares of forests every year (Vajpeyi, 2001, pg 1). This figure has been increasing dramatically each year despite the increased efforts of logging opponents, environmentalists and international pressure to bring a halt to global forest destruction. To this end, international logging companies have been blamed for contributing to global warming and the resultant natural catastrophes such as floods and tsunamis. Proponents of globalisation argue that often case the supposed effects of globalisation are highlighted while the reality of the positive impact that globalisation is bringing about is overshadowed. These proponents site job creation, training of new skills to locals, improvement in standard of living for locals due to earning an income and the contribution of multinational corporations to the growth of the GDP of many developing countries as some of the positive benefits of globalisation. They further argue that increase in economic activity propelled by globalisation has contributed to eradication of poverty and increase in information knowledge hence bring an end to some aspects of underdevelopment. Proponents also cite many Corporate Social Responsibility activities that international corporations carry out in developing countries. The economic, political and environmental landscape of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) The DRC is located right at the centre of Africa and it is the third largest country in the continent. It has vast wealth in natural resources such as diamonds, copper and forestry. Despite this wealth, the country remains one of the poorest in the continent characterised by extreme underdevelopment, political corruption and civil wars. These misfortunes have plagued the country since it obtained independence from Belgium in 1960 (Vajpeyi, 2001 pg 198). The civil wars in particular had adverse effects in the economical as well as the environmental sector of the country. Once a booming tourist destination, the war brought an end to tourism as well as the closure of several businesses. This drove the state of economy into chaos and increased the level of poverty in the country. While the war has officially ended, civil unrest persist in various regions in the country. This civil unrest is being sparked by clash between the ruling party and the leading opposition party. The political situation in the country hence remains volatile and some predict that another war could erupt in the near future. DRC is home to the second largest forest in the world. The forest is regarded as an essential part of the country’s economic and cultural life. The forests are utilised by its citizens to derive basic necessities such as food, energy and shelter. Economically, the forests contribute to the GDP through industrial activities being carried out by both national and international companies. The forest contains diverse trees species that produce wood products such as African oak, red cedar, walnut, softwood, mahogany and hardwood (Vajpeyi, 2001 pg 198), hence making it attractive for commercial activities. However, weak enforcement of conservation laws and rampant corruption have hindered efforts to protect the forest and contributed to widespread destruction. The civil wars that took place within the country as well as in the neighbouring country of Rwanda lead to an increased number of refugees who had been forced to abandon their homes and established shelters in the forests. Vajpeyi, (2001 pg 200) gives an example of refugees who fled to the camps set on the outskirts of the northeast DRC boarder with Rwanda and Uganda, near the Virunga Park. The park was rich in wildlife and thick forestry but the refugees who had no other means of attaining their livelihood used the park to obtain wood for fuel, clear land for small scale agriculture, poached the wild animals for food and in the process destroyed a large portion of the park. In addition, the DRC has one of the fastest growing populations in Central Africa hence prompting the need for more land to accommodate the expanding population. This land is often attained through clearance of forests. Agriculture has been one of DRC´s major sources of revenue. It accounts for one third of GDP and over 70% of the population is engaged in agricultural activity (Vajpeyi, 2001 pg 198). Hence, with the expansion of population, more forests are also being cleared to make land for agricultural use. Often case, the slash and burn method is utilized to clear the land as it is one of the cheapest ways to do so but unfortunately also one of the most destructive to the forest and the soil at large. The dynamics of common resources Common resources, shorts known as commons, refer to diverse resources or facilities which have some joint ownership or access (Sinha, 2006, pg 1). Examples of common resources include forests, fisheries, wildlife, pastures and clean water and air, to name but a few. As a common resource, forests provide many benefits to the livelihood and the way of life of thousands of forest depending communities. For humans in particular, forests provide medicinal plants that are utilized to cure various illnesses, they absorb carbon dioxide from the air so as to ensure continuous supply of fresh air and they are also source of food for communities. In addition, forests help in flood control and therefore protecting habitats. Forests further provide wood for fuel and industrial activities. Hence the contribution of forests to the well being of communities is undisputed. However, most of these common resources are often subject to reduction, degradation and even complete eradication if not managed and utilised properly. According to De Angelis, (2007, pg 133), commons are property arrangement that provide an incentive for and result in environmental degradation and general resource depletion. Commons become easily subjected to degradation because they are often viewed as “resources to which there is free and managed access” (2007, pg 133). However, rapid destruction of common resources and the communities that benefit from them is best viewed when commons are transformed into enclosures. At its simplest, enclosures take place when common resources are privatised. According to De Angelis, (2007, pg 142), enclosures are essentially a capitalist strategy where policies and practices are put in place with the aim of divorcing people from their means of production. In commons, the activities of human are channeled towards obtaining a sustainable livelihood for the individuals of a community. As De Angelis, (2007, pg 143) states, access to common resources empower people to the extent that it gives them a degree of autonomy and independence. However enclosures rob individuals of this independence by forcibly separating people from whatever access to social wealth they have (De Angelis, 2007, pg 143). Indeed, enclosure being an a prime example of capitalist activities at their best ensures that “the doing of human activity is channeled into forms that are compatible with the priorities of capital accumulation” (De Angelis, 2007, pg 133). These enclosures are essentially De Angelis, (2007, pg 134) argues that there is no enclosure of commons without at the same time the destruction and fragmentation of common resources and communities that depend on them. He later adds that through enclosures, common resources that are for the benefit of all are instead given to the “corporate sharks of the world economy” (De Angelis, 2007, pg 144). Globalisation impact in the use of common natural resources: The case of Democratic Republic of Congo´s forests In the last 50 years, forests have undergone tremendous degradation mainly as a result of deforestation. The reasons for this degradation range from man-made to natural causes which vary from place to place. Vajpeyi, (2001, pg 3) identifies commercial logging, increase demand worldwide for industrial wood, poor enforcement of forest protection laws by corrupt officials, globalisation of trade in wood products and the clearing up of forests for human settlement, agriculture and infrastructure such as road as examples of manmade causes to deforestation. Examples of natural causes to deforestation include air pollution, wild fires and floods. Some environmentalists argue that even the natural causes of deforestation are indirectly a result of human action. The introduction of stricter quotas in countries such as Indonesia has lead to logging multinationals to look for forests elsewhere. The cheap labour, lax regulatory laws, corrupt officials and absence of indigenous knowledge to develop natural resources have made these countries very attractive for profit seeking international investment. Hence the increase in the utilisation of forest resources for industrial purposes in the Democratic Republic of Congo has been attributed to globalisation. The DRC is one of the many countries that has opened up their forests to international corporations with the intention to gain foreign revenues that would boost the process of economic development. In examining the potential reasons behind the deteriorating nature of forests, what clearly emerges in that globalisation plays a role in impacting the use of common natural resources. It needs to be noted that the “increase in exploitation of forests such as those of the DRC is essentially a response to the global increase in demand for forest products” (Vajpeyi, 2001, pg 3). Indeed, the global integration of markets as a result of globalisation is opening up forests to industrial exploitation at an alarming rate. Globalisation has long been driven by the western powers. However, in recent years, there have emerged other countries such as Brazil, India and China, commonly known as emerging economies, which are becoming a force in the globalisation process. China in particular has been rapidly expanding its commercial activities in developing countries especially in the attaining of raw materials. In addition to fishing and mining, Chinese companies have invested in the logging sector of the Congo Basin. The Chinese goverment has been vocal in insisting the importance of abiding to the laws that dictate the utilisation of forests for commercial use in the DRC and other developing countries where chinese companies are involved in the logging industry. Despite that, the media has reported various activities being carried out by chinese companies that are deemed illegal and destructive to the forest. The government of DRC has in the past carelessly given private companies exclusive rights to portions of forests. This form of enclosure has adversely impacted the communities that depend on these now privatised forest spaces. Vajpeyi, (2001, pg 4) gives an example of how the indigenous forest dwelling people in DRC, such as the Mbuti tribe, who are being driven out of their habitats and their rights to common resources being sacrificed in the name of economic development through globalisation. Local communities that regard the forest as a common resource are often not involved in the selection and granting of the concession to logging companies that would operate in their territory. In some cases, there have been clashes between the communities and logging companies but since the logging companies often have the support of the government, these communities soon realize that they are fighting a losing battle. It has hence become essential for developing countries to bring an end to massive dеforеstation not only to protect their natural common resources but to also contribute in the decrease of grееnhousе gas еmissions. In 1999, thе Cеntral African Forеsts Commission (COMIFAC) was formed with the objective of regional cooperatio in protecting the forest. This commission continues to operates with the aid of funding from international institutions such as the World Bank (Stiglitz, 2006, pg12-19). The commission in corporation with various NGOs such as Greenpeace have managed to put pressure to bring an end to illegal logging in the Congo Basin. Globalisation has however not only been an international phenomenon. In DRC, as a result of dramatic increase in populations, there have been notable examples of people migrating from one region to another. Vajpeyi, (2001 pg 198) gives an example of how north of DRC, in a region known as Kivu where the Ituri rainforest presides, there has been an influx of migrants to the region. These migrants do not possess the cultural and community respect for how the forest is utilised. Armed with the knowledge that the forest belongs to all people from the DRC, the migrants rampantly clear forests to attain land that is utilised to farm cash crops and introduce harmful chemicals in the soils and waterways. What is evidently clear is that the destruction of common resources in the DRC can clearly not be blamed on globalisation alone. It is therefore essential to establish measures that in will empower locals to independently productively use the forests as a means to economic development. This could be done through the creation of well equipped environmental school to train locals to become environmental specialists with the necessary skills to productively use the forest in absence of international corporations. To date, such a training facility is missing in the DRC. As a compliment to the environmental school, environment research centers also need to be established that would employ the schools graduates as well as work in policy formulation in conjunction with the ministry involved in environmental issues. Apart from the establishment of formal training institutions, it is essential for local communities using the forest as a common resource to be educated on the negative effects of deforestation and the importance of effective resource utilization and management. This training could be done through local heads who would later impart the knowledge to the community. Popular and accessible media such as the radio could also be utilized to spread the message of the importance of forest conversation. Here politicians, popular local entertainment figures such as musicians and other respected figures in the country could contribute their voice in spreading the message of forest protection and conservation. Campaigns such as cut one tree plant two trees could be popularised though this means. The forest could also be utilised as a tourist destination. The country could target the niche environmental tourist sector hence using the forest as a foreign revenue earner but in a way that is not destructive. Game reserves could be established to cater for the tourists but as well as to protect the forest and the animals inhabiting it. Income generated from these activities could be utilized to improve forest safeguarding methods such as through the introduction of CCTV cameras to monitor activities at chosen sectors of the forest. The government should take up the role as the leader in ensuring the forest as a common resource is not destroyed. Admittedly the DRC government has in the recent years stepped up effort in curbing corruption within the logging sector and withdrawing logging rights from companies operating in a destructive manner. Laws that guide the operation of activities of the private sectors in the forestry industry are also slowly being enforced. This demonstrates that the government will not be bullied by the powers driving the globalisation process. However, to curb destruction of the forest by the local populace, the DRC government needs to increase the provision of basic infrastructure such as electricity to limit the use of wood as fuel. Conclusions What has emerged in this essay is that globalisation is a powerful phenomenon that has managed to successfully penetrate into the cultural, political, economic and environmental spheres of global activities. The impact that it has had on these spheres is a matter that has been subjected to a lot of debate. The essay has attempted to present both the negative as well as positive impacts of globalisation. What has emerged is that with regard to the role of globalisation in developing countries in relation to the utilisation of natural resources for industrial purposes, the resultant negative consequences to the environment far outweigh the positive impacts. The creation of enclosures on common natural resources has emerged as one of the ways globalisation contributes to massive environmental destruction. However, other factors such as increase in population and its resultant shortage of land as well as bad farming practices have also contributed to the destruction of forests. In the DRC, the civil wars in the country as well as in the neighbouring country resulted in millions of people becoming refugees and using the forest, albeit in a destructive manner, as a source of food, shelter and small income. The essay further highlighted that common resources can be managed properly if training opportunities for local environmental specialists are provided, if government increases the provision of infrastructure such as electricity and curb corruption in the forestry sector and if efforts to spread the message on the negative impact of deforestation are intensified. In the end, what has clearly emerged in this essay is that, in the case of DRC forests, globalisation has had a notable negative effect. However, factors such as overpopulation, civil wars and corrupt government have also played a crucial role in the destruction of the forest as a common resource. References Coetzee, J. (2005). Theories, policies and practice. London: Oxford University Press. De Angelis, M (2007). The Beginning of history. London: Pluto Press Sinha, H. 2006. People and Forests: unfolding the participation mystique. New Delhi. Concept Publishing Speth, J (2003). World´s apart: globalisation and the environment. Washington: Island Press Stеgеr, Manfrеd (2003). Globalization: A Vеry Short Introduction. Oxford, Nеw York: Oxford Univеrsity Prеss. Stiglitz, Josеph Е. (2006). Making Globalisation Work. Nеw York: W.W. Norton. Vajpeyi, D. K. (2001). Deforestation, environment and sustainable development: a comparative analysis. Westport: Praeger Publishers. Vertovec, S. (2003). Globalisation, globalism, environment and environmentalism. Consciousness and connections. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wolf, Martin (2004). Why Globalization Works. Nеw Havеn: Yalе Univеrsity Prеss. Read More