Climate Change in Saudi Arabia - Research Paper Example

 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 2 2. Effect of Oil on Climate Change 3 3. Economy v Climate Change 4 4. Green House Gas Emissions 6 5. Water Resources 9 6. Fossil Fuels 13 7. Clean Water Act 14 8. Law on Middle East 16 9. Effect of war of 1991 on Climate Change and Water Pollution 20 10. Conclusion 23 Works Cited 25 1. Introduction Climate Change transpired in the world, due to Global warming. Greenhouse gases do not allow the heat in the atmosphere to escape. This results in global warming. From the past two centuries, the quantity of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has increased, due to the burning of fossil fuels, like oil and coal. The acute food shortage being experienced by the world can be attributed to the increasing levels of greenhouse gases (Workshop on the Future of Clean Energy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). It is therefore imperative to utilize renewable energy sources and efficient technologies. The world is witness to considerable variation, in respect of sources of energy. In addition, there is an increase in the number of energy choices being provided to the various countries of the world. These efforts are the outcome of energy, security, economic and environmental concerns. All over the world, there has been a gradual changeover, from an economy based on fossil fuels, to on that depends on sustainable forms of energy (Al-Saleh 650). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia presents an extremely informative case, in this regard. It is one of the largest oil exporters in the world, and is home to 25% of the world’s oil reserves. Of late, this country has been making serious efforts at urbanization and industrialization. This nation receives a large amount of sunlight and enjoys considerable wind resources. However, these renewable energy resources have not been adequately exploited (Al-Saleh 650). The concerns over the climate and conventions of the United Nations stand to hinder the economic progress of Saudi Arabia. This kingdom will be required to adopt alternate energy sources, and eschew the use of traditional fossil fuels. The UN insists that the kingdom will have to adopt innovative technologies such as solar power for its energy needs (Saudi Arabia Says It Could Suffer from Any Pact that Curbs Consumer Oil Demand by Penalizing Carbon Emissions). 2. Effect of Oil on Climate Change The economic growth of Saudi Arabia has slowed down to an appreciable extent, on account of the global economic slowdown. Saudi Arabia has the largest oil reserves in the world, and it had made enormous profits by drastically increasing the price of oil, in the recent past. Consequently, it is not seriously affected by the current economic crisis. The insistence of the developed world to reduce the consumption of carbon based fuels, has drawn a sharp reaction from the Saudis (Saudis want aid if world cuts oil dependence ). For instance, Al Sabban, the Senior Economic Advisor to the Petroleum Ministry of Saudi Arabia, has attacked the developed world in no uncertain terms. It is his contention that these countries are insisting upon a reduction in the consumption of fossil fuels, in order to harm the oil producing nations of the world. He also claimed that Saudi Arabia was not attempting to sabotage the talks on reducing the consumption of fossil based fuels. (Saudis want aid if world cuts oil dependence ). The only objective of Saudi Arabia was to obtain sufficient time to develop renewable energy sources. 3. Economy v Climate Change The economy of Saudi Arabia is chiefly dependent on oil, and its government supervises most of the economic activity in the nation. Saudi Arabia is the largest exporter of petroleum, in the world; and it is in a dominant position in the OPEC. The dependence of Saudi Arabia on the petroleum sector is evident from the fact that 80% of its budget revenues are derived from this sector. In addition, the petroleum sector provides 45% of the GDP and 90% of the export earnings (Saudi Arabia). The number of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia is of the order of 6.4 millions. These workers are very important for the Saudi economy, especially in the crucial oil and service sectors. The spiraling oil prices of the recent past, proved to be of great benefit to Saudi Arabia. As a result, there was tremendous growth, phenomenal growth in revenues and a vast increase in foreign assets. A major achievement was the substantial reduction in the nation’s public debt (Saudi Arabia). Approximately, 40% of the youth in Saudi Arabia are below the age of 15 years. In order to improve their employment opportunities, and in order to reduce its dependence on oil exports, Saudi Arabia has promoted the growth of the private sector. The major focus of the government, in this context, has been in the areas of natural gas exploration, petrochemicals, power generation and telecommunications (Saudi Arabia). The number of unemployed persons in Saudi Arabia is very large. In addition, the majority of the youth do not possess the knowledge and skills that are required by the private sector. In order, to promote foreign investment and diversify its economy, this country, agreed to the terms and conditions of the World Trade Organization. This incident transpired in 2005, after several years of negotiations (Saudi Arabia). The Saudis have declared that there are plans afoot to encourage development and diversification, in the different regions of the nation, by establishing economic cities. Arabia had made huge profits from five years of high oil prices. This has provided it with large financial reserves, and these reserves are expected to help it tide over the economic crisis that has afflicted the world. Nevertheless, difficulty in procuring international credit, plummeting oil prices and the slowdown in the global economy are extremely likely to curtail the economic growth of Saudi Arabia (Saudi Arabia). There is significant shortage of housing, and the availability of clean water, electricity and medical care. Moreover, agricultural production does not target the export market and suffers from the lack of adequate water supply. It is essential to take into account environmental concerns, due to the fact that they impose certain costs on society. These costs remain undisclosed in the cost of electricity (Alnatheer 3). The previous evaluations, relating to the various options available for expanding electricity systems in Saudi Arabia, had emphasized the expenditure to be incurred on account of expanding the infrastructure. These assessments had ignored the monetary equivalent of the environmental effects of constructing or operating the expanded system (Alnatheer 3). Monetized environmental externalities are pollutant emissions or impacts that are expressed in financial terms. Such monetizing of impacts makes it possible to compare the cost of pollutant emissions or impacts, with direct financial costs. In the context of the operation of electric systems, such assessment of external costs proves to be onerous and controversial (Alnatheer 3). 4. Green House Gas Emissions Greenhouse gases (GHG) are gases in the atmosphere, which can be natural and also anthropogenic. They absorb radiation that lies within the infrared range of the spectrum, from the surface of the earth, clouds and the atmosphere. Thereafter, they emit this captured radiation back to the earth, at specific wavelengths. This entire process constitutes the Greenhouse effect (United Nations Statistics Division). Some of the GHGs are water vapor or H2O, carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and ozone (O3). These gases are called the natural GHGs of the atmosphere. There are a number of manmade GHGs such as the halocarbons, and substances that contain chlorine and bromine. The Montreal Protocol addressed these gases. On the other hand, the Kyoto Protocol deals with greenhouse gases, like sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydroflourocorbons (HFCs), and perflourocarbons (PFCs) (United Nations Statistics Division). It had been noticed in Saudi Arabia that the generation of electricity had considerable adverse effect on the environment. A few of these electricity generating plants depend upon the burning of oil for their operation. Such electric power plants emit copious amounts of sulfur dioxide, which is very harmful for the environment (Alnatheer 2). Consumption of petroleum products produces GHG emissions. If the consumption increases, then the emissions also increase. Mere excavation and drilling for oil does not produce any emission. The argument is that the reduction in domestic oil production automatically reduces the consumption and thereby the emission of GHGs. However, this is not a correct theory; because if the domestic production of oil is reduced then dependence on foreign oil increases (Greenhouse gas emissions and offshore drilling: strange bedfellows or practical politics?). Thus, alternative power sources have to be explored. GHG emissions can be reduced by adopting new and innovative ideas, such as using fuel efficient technologies in the construction of buildings. In addition, the manufacture of fuel efficient cars has a significant impact on reducing emissions (Greenhouse gas emissions and offshore drilling: strange bedfellows or practical politics?). . The world is moving towards a carbon – free global economy. Saudi Arabia will have to change its existing economic perceptions and energy sources. Manufacturing processes and businesses will be required to change over to renewable energy sources. Every organization, irrespective of its size, will be affected by the measures to reduce GHG emissions. Saudi Arabia is forging ahead to invest in wind and solar technologies, in the fond hope that it will be able to retain its preeminent position in the world (Saudi Arabia Says It Could Suffer from Any Pact that Curbs Consumer Oil Demand by Penalizing Carbon Emissions). The governments are identifying the seriousness of the global objective to ensure a carbon – free world, and making suitable adjustments to their policies. This will have to be emulated by the private sector and businesses. These entities will be required to assess the impact of climate change, on account of their business operations. As such, it will be up to them to determine effective strategies to cope up with these changes (Saudi Arabia Says It Could Suffer from Any Pact that Curbs Consumer Oil Demand by Penalizing Carbon Emissions). 5. Water Resources Saudi Arabia’s domestic water consumption is so great that half of its requirement has to be satisfied by means of desalination. There are around 30 gigantic desalination plants that belong to the government, and thousands of private and local plants. The remaining demand for water is satisfied by the groundwater. This groundwater is not being replenished at the same rate that it is being drawn, and it has been contended that just of the quantity extracted, is being replenished (Harrison 44 – 45). The amount of domestic consumption of water is just 5% of the total water consumption. The lion’s share of water consumption is diverted to the agriculture sector, which consumes 87% of the total. Most of this water is derived from the groundwater reserves. In the 1970s, the amount of water consumed per year, by the agricultural sector was of the order of 2 billion cubic meters. This had increased to 25 billion cubic meters, by the year 2004 (Harrison 44 – 45). The Saudi government reduced the amount of subsidy provided to farmers, on account of food grains. However, this measure proved to be ineffective, because the farmers had substituted animal fodder for wheat, and produced four crops per year. This fodder has a ready market, because there are around 32, 000 head of cattle in the nation. In the words of the water minister of Saudi Arabia, the cost of the water, used in the production of crops, was far in excess of the profit made by the sale of these crops (Harrison 44 – 45). The annual increase in the population of Saudi Arabia is around 4%. Such population increase brings about a corresponding enhancement in the amount of water required. During the past quarter century, the daily demand for water has increased from 1million to 5 million cubic meters. It has been estimated that by the year 2030, the demand for water will be in the region of 12 million cubic meters per day (Harrison 44 – 45). The problem being faced by Saudi Arabia, in this context, can be best assessed by studying the situation in Jeddah. Migration of rural families to this city, results in an additional increase of 5% per annum. Moreover, in the rural areas, the per capita consumption of water is around 20 liters per day. When these families migrate to Jeddah, their per capita consumption of water increases to around 300 liters per day; and this imposes a great burden upon the municipal authorities of Jeddah (Harrison 44 – 45). Another major problem faced by water suppliers in Saudi Arabia, is that of providing sufficient potable water to its citizens. The various adverse factors, in this context, are an ever increasing population, the gradual diminution in the amount of available groundwater, and the operation of desalination plants at their maximum rated capacity. The continually increasing demand for water has made desalination the most viable option for Saudi Arabia. This process involves the expenditure of a considerable amount of energy. Consequently, the Saudi authorities have been focusing on nuclear energy, as it is has a less harmful effect on the environment, in comparison to fossil fuels (Kutbi and Al Sulaiman 327 – 337). Fossil groundwater in Saudi Arabia takes place at a very rapid rate, on account of the development of agriculture. It has been predicted that the groundwater reserves would be completely exhausted in two to three decades, if the present rate of consumption were to continue. In order to circumvent this untenable situation, the Ministry of Planning has come up with a strategy that hopes to reduce the quantity of water consumed, annually for irrigation purposes (Pannikar). The measures proposed under this strategy were; first, the implementation of effective irrigation schedules at the farm level, so that the water supplied would correspond to the crop being grown. A 30% saving in water was expected from this measure. Second, substitution of surface irrigation systems with micro irrigation and sprinklers. Third, cultivation of crops that require less water. Fourth, control over the amount of water consumed on farms, by installing water meters (Pannikar). Since the extraction of groundwater is to a greater extent that its replenishment, the level of groundwater has decreased substantially. Due to this, much larger and deeper holes have to be drilled for extracting water. In addition, much more powerful pumps, which consume greater quantities of electricity or fuel, have to be utilized. These factors serve to significantly increase the costs (Pannikar). Moreover, the quality of the groundwater has made it unfit for municipal supply, in the absence of costly treatment. Furthermore, considerable expenditure has to be incurred in transporting water, because of the fact that more than half of the groundwater reserves are not in the proximity of the areas where water is required. In addition, places located along the coast, are beset with seawater intrusion, which renders the groundwater unsuitable for use. In the future, Saudi Arabia will have to desalinate much greater quantities of seawater; and increase the use of recycled wastewater. Moreover, the desalinated water has proved to be unfit for use in agriculture, on account of its salt content (Pannikar). The extent of desertification, depletion of underground water, absence of perennial rivers, and the lack of permanent water bodies has compelled the Saudi government to undertake the development of desalination plants on a very large scale (Saudi Arabia). 6. Fossil Fuels Saudi Arabia has fossil fuel CO2 emissions of the order of 104 million metric tons. This makes it the 15th largest emitter of fossil fuel CO2. It is not only the largest producer of oil, but also the largest exporter. It has been estimated that 65% of the fossil fuel CO2 emissions in Saudi Arabia, are on account of the consumption of petroleum products. Since, the mid 1980s, natural gas has been increasingly consumed, and its contribution to the overall fossil fuel CO2 emissions, is approximately 33% (Boden, Marland and Andres). However, Saudi Arabia has not been slow to reduce such emissions. For instance, in 1974, flaring gas in the oilfields contributed 76% of the fossil fuel CO2 emissions. Subsequently, more advanced technologies were implemented in the oil fields and the contribution of flaring gas has now been pegged down at 1% of the total fossil fuel CO2 emissions. All the same, the per capita fossil fuel CO2 emissions have increased tenfold, since 1950. At 4.38 metric tons of carbon per person, these emissions are significantly greater than the global average (Boden, Marland and Andres). As a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, Saudi Arabia has made several attempts to use clean energy and carbon capture and sequestration. Some of the clean sources of energy are solar, wind, geothermal, tidal, biomass and hydrogen. This has to be combined with carbon capture and sequestration, in respect of emissions from the petrochemical, power and oil plants. A major advantage with solar and wind resources is that these forms of energy are abundantly available, all over the world. Consequently, they do not require any grid connectivity or transportation (Workshop on the Future of Clean Energy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). 7. Clean Water Act The acute scarcity of fresh water compels Saudi Arabia to make huge investments in new construction, in order to preserve water. As a result water is an expensive commodity in this country. As a matter of fact, a gallon of water costs around US$1. Despite this serious drawback, the Saudis have proceeded with development, and they have managed to construct hotels, hospitals and industries, at a reasonable cost. The scarcity of water has made this development task, somewhat difficult and costly(White, Kates and Burton 12). Nevertheless, such complexity and expense have not proved to be impediments to the progress being made in Saudi Arabia. The Clean Water Act is an initiative to protect human health and the environment. It does this by providing protection to drinking water at the source. This legislation is basically founded on the principle of prevention, and subscribes to the thinking that preventing the contamination of drinking water sources is far better than adopting measures to address problems that could crop up, on account of the pollution of such sources (The Clean Water Act: Myths and Facts). A very important consideration to be taken cognizance of is that the protection of fresh water sources from contamination is best suited to local communities. The latter are in the best possible position to decide upon the protective interventions necessary, and how best to execute these measures. This act encourages the preparation of drinking water source protection evaluation reports at the local level, and the preparation of relevant protection plans (The Clean Water Act: Myths and Facts). The Clean Water Act had been passed by Congress in 1972, with the objective of providing wide ranging protections for water. The primary aim was to restore and maintain the biological, chemical and physical integrity of the country’s water bodies. Unfortunately, since, 2001, there have been several Supreme Court decisions that have queried the validity of these protections. Thus encouraged, the polluters of the nation are making serious attempts to engage in their pernicious activities, which would certainly contaminate the streams and wetlands (Save the Clean Water Act). This would endanger all communities in the country. Therefore, suitable legislation is to be enacted by Congress, in order to dispel the confusion regarding which of the waterways are protected. In addition, such legislation has to once again confirm protection for the vital water bodies of the nation. This is essential if further damage to water bodies is to be prevented (Save the Clean Water Act). 8. Law on Middle East The UN Frame work Convention of Climate Change was approved of by 155 nations in addition to the EC, in June 1992. It consists of many elements that are applicable to most of the negotiating nations. However, none of these states were fully satisfied with this development (Sands 359). The oil producing countries headed by Saudi Arabia, were not agreeable to any substantive obligation, whatsoever, in the Convention and would have been elated if the negotiations had totally failed (Sands 360). Saudi Arabia’s environmental laws are restricted to some extent. It does not have a comprehensive environmental law to punish those who cause damage to the environment. Laws relating to the protection of the environment are not to be found in any single statute, and these tenets are to be found in the laws relating to other substantial areas. For instance, one has to refer to the labor laws, if the law relating to the protection of workers from environmental hazards is to be accessed (Stovall). Of late, the Saudi government has been seized with according greater priority to environmental protection. In addition, a number of government departments in Saudi Arabia, have commenced the practice of incorporating environmental protection clauses, whilst entering into procurement contracts. Nevertheless, in some instances, the contractual terms have been found to be too limited, in scope. For instance, some contractual terms have failed to specify the cleaning up of worksites (Stovall). The Sixth (1995-99) Development Plan provides for an integrated national environmental code. It also establishes a national system for environmental impact assessment, in respect of industrial, agrarian and urban projects. The Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA) is required to control pollution and ensure environmental protection. It is the duty of MEPA to ensure that the industrial plants comply with the provisions of environmental regulations. A majority of these provisions are based on European and US standards (Stovall). The MEPA has been empowered to inform the concerned government department, if a company or plant fails to comply with the environmental regulations. The Ministry of Industry and Electricity, the Ministry of Commerce and the Royal Commission of Jubail and Yanbu have been authorized to issue licenses to businesses. These authorities do not issue a license, unless the business consents to adhere to the regulations that relate to pollution and the environment (Stovall). It is a fact that the governments in the Middle East nations had not taken any steps to protect the environment. They merely established institutions that were designed to address issues related to environmental protection and related matters. However, these countries did not empower these agencies to deal with environmental problems. This has changed to some extent; and at present, some of the governments in the Middle East region have empowered the local environmental agencies to implement the extant environmental safety measures (Stovall). The Middle East region has been severely affected by global warming; which has transformed the life and livelihood of the residents of this area. The number of people, who have been adversely affected by global warming, in the Middle East region, is in the millions. Consequently, the countries of this region have to implement substantial measures to address this problem. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) is concerned about this issue. It has rightly pointed out that the countries of this region have tended to ignore the importance of water sources, whilst focusing on oil and gas reserves. Climate change causes the deterioration of water quality. In addition, global warming, decreases the amount of available water, and renders it difficult to locate water resources (Stromme). The energy sector in Jordan, one of the prominent countries of the Middle East region, is responsible for 74% of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the nation. Nearly 98% of the energy sector’s emissions comprise of carbon dioxide. The waste sector is the second largest contributor to the emissions of greenhouse gases, and it is responsible for 13.5% of total GHG emissions in the nation. The industrial processes produce 8% of GHG emissions; while land use and forestry account for 4%, and the agriculture sector is responsible for less than one percent of GHG emissions. Energy industries produce 37.5% of the energy sector’s total emissions. The rest is contributed by the transportation sector, and this comes to 24.3 %. In the waste sector, domestic solid waste disposal, accounts for 12.5% of the total emissions of this sector. Methane was chiefly discharged by landfills for domestic waste, and this accounted for 96% of such methane emission (Energy Sector Main Source of Kingdom's greenhouse gas emmissions - report). It has been anticipated that the millions of this region will have to countenance acute water shortage. Moreover, these nations are already suffering from scant supplies of clean water; and in some areas, water was not to be found. Consequently, the denizens of this region will have to face a number of undesirable outcomes; especially the impoverished communities, women, and children (Stromme). Climate change has made its effect felt on the Middle East. As a result, the countries of this region, can no longer afford the luxury of making plans and developing strategies to address this problem, sometime in the future. They have to act immediately, if the damage being caused to the environment is to be curtailed. Historically, the Middle East region has always been deficient in water resources. On account of climate change, these resources are being further depleted (Stromme). 9. Effect of war of 1991 on Climate Change and Water Pollution The Persian Gulf War of 1991 caused heavy damage to the environment in the Middle East region. Nearly eight million barrels of crude oil were spilled in the gulf waters, along the coast of Kuwait, Iran, and Persian Gulf. This oil spill was considered to be the largest oil spill in the history of the world. It polluted the gulf waters, and some sections of the Saudi Arabian coast sustained the worst damage (The Environment and the 1991 Persian Gulf War). Some of these sediments in these areas were found to contain nearly 7% oil. The shallow areas along the coast had served as the feeding ground for birds. The oil spill damaged these shallow areas and made them uninhabitable. Moreover, other areas that were used for feeding and as nurseries by the fish and shrimp were also seriously damaged by the oil spill (The Environment and the 1991 Persian Gulf War). The food chain in the coastal areas was seriously affected. Plants and animals that grow under the water promote the food chain. The oil spill damaged the shoreline. Consequently, the eco system in this area was adversely affected, as the plants, fishes and aquatic creatures were exterminated. Several fishing industries in Saudi Arabia had to be closed down, subsequent to the oil spill. Saudi Arabia sustained loss to the tune of millions of dollars, on account of the closure of the fishing industry (The Environment and the 1991 Persian Gulf War). In addition to the oil spill, the burning wells produced airborne pollution. The effects of this pollution were drastic, but not clearly determined. In Ras al Khafji, the northern region of Saudi Arabia, samples of soil and vegetation were collected and examined. This examination revealed that there were large quantities of oil particle deposits in the soil (The Environment and the 1991 Persian Gulf War). According to the UN Environmental Program, the livestock that had consumed the grass grown within an area of 7,000 square kilometers of the fires or 1,100 kilometers from the center of the fires, in the northern region of Saudi Arabia, contained dangerous levels of toxins. Therefore, the UN Program strongly advised the people to desist from consuming the livestock of that region. It was repeatedly stressed by the UNEP that the consumption of such livestock could cause serious harm to the health of humans (The Environment and the 1991 Persian Gulf War). The oil spill and the burning of oil wells had released dangerous levels of pollution into water, air, livestock, marine life, and vegetation. Furthermore, the coalition forces had damaged the desert ecology with the discharge of untreated sewage to an extent of more than 207 million liters (The Environment and the 1991 Persian Gulf War). This waste matter contained toxins and refuse that posed grave danger to the environment. Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol will have a major impact on the income earned by the oil exporting countries. This is definite and irrevocable. However, the extent of the damage that could result from the measures adopted to reduce greenhouse gases is uncertain. There is considerable disagreement among the research scholars regarding the future and the systems that are being enforced. In addition, the presence of several viable models has made it difficult to predict the situation that will prevail, after two decades (Aarts and Janssen 339). Huge losses have been predicted, and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries fears that oil revenue losses in the year 2010, could be in the range of $20 to $60 billion per annum. Moreover, the Dutch National Research Program on Global Air Pollution and Climate Change sponsored an analysis which concluded that the loss of income could be much higher at $94 billion per year, as of the year 2010 (Aarts and Janssen 340). The exorbitant rates charged for crude oil, by the OPEC, in the recent past, has served to benefit these countries enormously. One of the principal beneficiaries was Saudi Arabia, which earned very large amounts, on account of the sale of its crude oil. This development has made it possible for the Saudis to explore a number of areas for development purposes. Nevertheless, a major challenge is being faced by these oil exporting countries; because they have to decide upon the best means of achieving sustainable development. These countries have to compulsorily increase the amount of energy from renewable sources, and proportion of such energy has to be substantial (Al-Saleh 660). 10. Conclusion There is considerable concern, amongst the comity of nations, for the environment. In this context, the source of the energy being used, has assumed great significance. It is imperative to employ renewable energy sources, if the earth’s environment is to be protected. Now, Saudi Arabia is a major oil producer; and oil is a fossil fuel. Therefore, it is essential for this country to switch over to renewable energy sources. It has to employ renewable energy sources, in order to meet its ever growing energy requirements. Such initiatives are imperative, not only for Saudi Arabia, but also the world (Al-Saleh 661). Saudi Arabia had initiated several measures to retain its dominance in the world oil market amid the increased chaos and uncertainty, brought about by the war in Iraq. It had been very keen to seize control over the global supply of oil. Its efforts proved successful, and it reestablished its status as the largest supplier of crude oil to the US. In addition, Saudi Arabia had proposed to the other oil importing countries that it would increase its oil sales, so as to accommodate their requirements (Morgan and Ottaway). It was successful, in preventing its customers from approaching other oil producing nations. The Saudis achieved this by increasing their daily oil production by a million barrels. This was far in excess of the quota specified by the OPEC. Saudi Arabia collected a vast sum of foreign exchange, due to these initiatives, and its foreign reserves were in the range of $90 billion to $100 billion (Morgan and Ottaway). By this move it protected its economy from a drop in oil prices, which was anticipated in the aftermath of Saddam Hussein’s ouster from Iraq’s presidency. Works Cited Aarts, Paul and Dennis Janssen. "Shades of Opinion:The Oil Exporting Countries and International Climate Politics." Review of International Affairs 3.2 (2003): 332 – 351. Alnatheer, Othman. "Environmental benefits of energy efficiency and renewable energy in Saudi Arabia's electric sector." Energy Policy 34.1 (2006): 2 – 10. Al-Saleh, Yasser. "Renewable energy scenarios for major oil-producing nations: The case of Saudi Arabia ." Futures 41.9 (2009): 650 – 662. Boden, T A, G Marland and R J Andres. "Saudi Arabia Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions." 2009. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.A. 21 November 2009 . Energy Sector Main Source of Kingdom's greenhouse gas emmissions - report. 12 November 2009. 21 November 2009 . Greenhouse gas emissions and offshore drilling: strange bedfellows or practical politics? 15 June 2009. 22 November 2009 . Harrison, Roger. "A Problem With Liquidity: The Challenges Of Water in Saudi Arabia." Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 23.6 (2004): 44 – 45. Kutbi, Ibrahim I and K M Al Sulaiman. "Features of nuclear desalination systems for Saudi Arabia ." Desalination 97.1 – 3 (1994): 327 – 337. Morgan, Dan and David B. Ottaway. War-Wary Saudis Move to Increase Oil Market Clout. 30 November 2002. 22 November 2009 . Pannikar, Avinash K. "Water profile of Saudi Arabia." 25 February 2008. Encyclopedia of Earth. 21 November 2009 . Sands, Philippe. “Principles of international environmental law.” 2003. Cambridge University Press. "Saudi Arabia." 2009. CIA World Factbook. 21 November 2009 . Saudi Arabia Says It Could Suffer from Any Pact that Curbs Consumer Oil Demand by Penalizing Carbon Emissions. April 2009. 22 November 2009 . "Saudis want aid if world cuts oil dependence ." 8 October 2009. msnbc. 21 November 2009 . Save the Clean Water Act. 2006. 21 November 2009 . Stovall, Howard L. Environmental Legislation In the Middle East – A Preliminary Summary. 8 June 1998. 23 November 2009 . Stromme, Alvhild. Global Warming Impacts Lives of Millions in Middle East, Regional Meeting Concludes, Requesting Immediate Aid from UNDP to Tackle Climate Change. 20 August 2009. 22 November 2009 . "The Clean Water Act: Myths and Facts." 5 November 2008. 21 November 2009 . The Environment and the 1991 Persian Gulf War. 22 November 2009 . United Nations Statistics Division. Environmental Indicators: GHGs. August 2009. 22 November 2009 . White, Gilbert F, Robert William Kates and Ian Burton. Themes from the work of Gilbert F. White. University of Chicago Press, 1986. Workshop on the Future of Clean Energy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 1 May 2008. 21 November 2009 . Read More