Cities in the 20th Century: Netherfield, Milton Keynes, the UK - Research Paper Example

CITIES IN THE 20TH CENTURY: NETHERFIELD, MILTON KEYNES, UK Contents Sr. # Topic Pg. # 1. Introduction 2 1.1. Brief History 3 1.2. Relationship between Architecture and Society 6 2. Cities in the 21st century 7 2.1. Planned Cities: Milton Keynes, Netherfield 9 3. Conclusion 10 4. Illustrations 12 References 13 1. Introduction The 20th century observed the dawn of the specialized disciplines of metropolitan and provincial development, and the allied assembly of countless new cities and towns, which sprung up across the globe, during that era. Time and again, the edifice of these new metropolitan centers has been vital for the phrase in urban form, of broader ideological and socio-political movements. This was particularly the case in those conceptual country sides where technology and politics intermingled effortlessly in the construction of not only the urban surroundings, but also in ventures intended at fashioning new model citizens and new societies. However, the fundamental function of technology in conceiving of modern society through the built allegory of the city is not restricted to dictatorial administrations, and stretches out to the till date: for instance, Tsukuba in Japan, UK’s modern towns, or the never ending pursuit – in the Gulf and East Asia – to construct ever more intricate eco-cities, all in the name of building ultra modern ultra chic cities which cater to the growing demands of the rapidly transforming mindset of the 21st century citizens. The early 21st century cities are indicative of an ever increasing mélange of material urbanization frameworks, as well as societal and lifestyle opportunities, which poses a key confrontations in ascertaining the trends which urban development are adopting. In the process, the evolution of cities in modern times, from an industrial society to an information based society is studied as witnessed in the western cities during the past couple of decades. Owing to the rapid technological development and the growing global economy, it has become quite apparent that unrestrained development, which is believed to assist the society as a whole meets fearsome environmental, social and economic restraints in an age when the civilization's ambitions, behavior and evils are more and more universal in disposition. This paper attempts to scrutinize a variety of concerns with respect to modern urban development of cities in the 21st century, with a primary focus on planned cities, such as Milton Keynes. 1.1. Brief History: Victorian Britain: The 19th century was by far one of the, fastest developing eras in the previous centuries. During this stage England underwent revolutionary transformation from a predominantly idyllic, agricultural country to a modern metropolitan, and an industrialized one. Such a transformation however implicated substantial dislodgment and drastically tainted the nature of the society, we lived in. It took several years for both: the government as well as the people to blend with the new situations. To be specific, the Victorian era commenced in 1837 and concluded with Queen Victoria’s death in 1901, but the period can be extended to contain the years before and after these dates, approximately from the Napoleonic Wars until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Urbanization was the most remarkable event that occurred in the Victorian age. Cities were formed and developed essentially through large scale relocation. Entire families left their villages in search of better employment opportunities, which the new cities offered owing to the widespread industrialization which opened up gates for urban labor, to work in factories; the female folk who migrated from the countryside were absorbed into domestic service; while the younger males were offered a wide range of employment opportunities in urban professions. Cities built up models of livelihood which were based on an individual’s income. In the second half of the century, new developments such as drains, piped water, gas, lighting, and building codes brought about considerable enhancements in city life. There were localities of significant residences, 'clerks' suburbs" of middle class row houses, as well as huge locales of housing lease for workers. Such facilities allowed the people living in cities to combine residential areas, shopping centers as well as entertainment zones within the confines of their neighborhoods, making life all the more convenient and trouble-free. Widespread neighboring societal constructions were based on places of worship, trade unions, professional associations, volunteer organizations, sports clubs, amateur musical societies and so forth. The public associations between the working-class and middle class metropolitan living eventually became all the more complex resisting uncomplicated explanation1. Urban Regeneration in the U.K All through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, swift urbanization in the western world was assembled by industrial authoritarianism, and escalating local supremacy. Local self-importance and ‘Fordist’ industrial means of manufacture sought to sustain industrial growth through the provision of cooperative utilization. It is hence understandable, that from the commencement of the industrial revolution manufacturing cities as well as their occupants were evidently subjugated by a handful of wealthy industrialists who arranged the corporeal, communal and political characteristics of the city with the intention of profit (LeGates and Stout, 1996). For instance, in the UK a wide range of administrative legislations, such as the Boards of Health and Local Government Acts, sought to strengthen the actions of overbearing entrepreneurs, for example, transport utilities, health care, housing and education. The concerns of traditionalist visualizations of refinement were fulfilled as the city was developing around the desires of contemporary industrial development right through the first half of the 1990s. The typology of the industrial metropolis and the conception and building of such urban metropolis in the modern-day urban hierarchy have been established as a novel, more forceful stage in the growth of cities, with urban privileged nurturing ventures intended to emphasize innovative types of civic distinctiveness. Intrinsic to such a program is an effort to legalize the political ventures which operate to endorse the fiscal and artistic awareness of urban cities. Such practices themselves symbolize material and emblematic endeavors to generate appropriate settings and infrastructure to maintain post-industrial post modern economic activity and allied social and cultural individuality and lifestyles2. The World System of Cities The conception of a world system of cities replicates the mounting inter-reliance of countries and cities within the international political financial system. In this metropolitan arrangement, 'world cities' hold a characteristic forte on account of their position as political and economic control centers. The position is palpable in the absorption of sophisticated manufacturer services such as education, Research & Development, banking and insurance, accounting, legal services, advertising and real estate services. References to such 'world cities' outlook facilitate the urban geographer to restructure several urban issues formerly described in the background of the city or regional limitations. While examining the present-day city, urban geographers must be responsive of the affiliation between international and national and/ or local forces involved in the construction and re-construction of inner-city surroundings. The requirement for such an outlook is strengthened by the progression of globalization, which as witnessed in modern times, further accentuates the connections between diverse stages of scrutiny. Especially, the universal and local must be considered not as diagnostic contradictions but rather as two sides of the same coin. The process of globalization emphasizes the requirement for urban geographers to adopt and implement a multilevel interdisciplinary outlook in the quest for urban clarification.3 1.2. Relationship between Architecture and Society: There is barely any form of art in existence, which is as entirely entwined with a certain civilization as its architectural depiction since it is art, and art alone, which possesses the distinct ability to be ingrained physically in the geographic setting of that specific civilization. It mirrors the ambitions, goals, desires, the creative susceptibility; economic prosperity; the extent and scope of their technological innovations and development; the unique combination comprising of elements climate and topography, as well as the arrangement of their social association. The architectural forms of a society does not only represent the above mentioned elements, but also are reflective of the people that live there and a study of such cities or locations hence, affords us the ability to take a glimpse at their art form and understand their vision of society. In a nutshell, the architectural marvels that each city displays are a mirror to that civilization’s activities which shape and define their collective identity. Hence, there is indeed a deep and meaningful relationship between the architecture and society, as it is symbolic of the trends, aspirations and visions of the inhabitants. 2. Cities in the 21st Century During the first half of the nineteenth century, Victorian Britain became the world's first urbanized society with a significant population staying in big cities where work and work places were increasingly segregated from the habitual customs of household life and living4. In the early Victorian era a large majority of cities were devoid of adequate pavements, sewage facilities, and community structures. The crucial material aspects of the twentieth-century urban life were mainly developed and shaped by nineteenth-century engineers and civic reformers. However cities during the 21st century became more and more civic and profitable business ventures. Enormous structures were built for the Royal Exchange, the General Post Office, and the headquarters of other banks, insurance companies, and businesses. With the growth of infrastructure facilities, the cities experienced radical makeover, with the establishment of lavish shopping area, luxurious residential areas for the urban elite, theaters, and educational establishments. Persistent construction and re-construction was the norm. Older locales were transformed into slums and were eventually wiped away for the purpose of building new commercial establishments or rail lines (See Illustration 1). Affluent cities on the other hand, invested heavily in the setting up of modern day entertainment centers and other public constructions such as town halls, law courts, universities, museums, concert halls, libraries, schools, and other substantial building projects.5 Examples: 2.1. Planned Cities: Milton Keynes Definition: “In a planned city, both population and welfare are endogenous; the particular values they take on are consequence of decisions made by a central authority concerning population density and the method by which land rent is determined. There is not necessarily a tendency for the planned city to move toward spatial equilibrium. The obtainable welfare surface may differ according to spatial location”6. In the 19th century large scale experimentations were carried out in Europe as well as the United States with a view to develop innovative structures of urban living which evaded the predicaments posed by the old industrial cities. These experiments eventually led the British town planner Ebenezer Howard to initiate the novel concept, today popularly known as the "garden city" which is representative of a premeditated housing society specifically designed around green open spaces. Howard's garden cities were the prototypes of Britain's postwar new towns. The inner regions of the cities had become fetid and overcrowded, while unexpected external enlargement had led to extensive housing estates in the suburbs. The new towns, on the other hand were exquisitely planned to function as self contained communities wherein the housing areas were alienated from employment precincts and pedestrians from traffic and although there were initial setbacks in properly executing the planned city plan; but with time several of the new towns eventually managed to mature into pleasurable places to live in, one in which common populace could afford to benefit from a high level of service provision. 7 A considerable portion of the landscaping, at Milton Keyenes, was positioned along with the streets and interleaved into grid squares in the form of small or large parks although the linear parks remain the city's greatest green feats. They were proposed to be striking embellishments to the landscape and to offer people the convenience of enjoyable walking surroundings: all of the parks in the town are decorated with merged walkways and cycle ways. Water was also envisioned as a key amenity and appeal. The rivers, streams and a canal run through the parks, and the corporation maintained and developed a large majority of the existing green spaces alongside the river and canal banks8. Netherfield Netherfield was designed by Ed Jones, Chris Cross, Jeremy Dixon and Mke Gold. The Netherfield grid square was constructed during the period 1972 and 1977; hence it can be regarded as one of the earliest contemporary cities. Contrasting the more conventional estates in Milton Keynes, the council housing at Netherfield was planned along a firm grid, with terraced segments of up to a kilometer. The elevation of the buildings differs greatly across the inclined location with a view to uphold a steady roof line, which was intended to be the designers’ signature move9. 3. Conclusion Cities have forever been the central force of economic efficiency and societal progression and there barely exists anything which suggests otherwise or challenges this notion, in the near future. Rapid advancements in telecommunications, transportation along with the current spurt in economic globalization will, without a doubt, redefine the spatial array of modern day cities in a significant manner, however, the intrinsic benefits of accumulation, for instance, inventiveness generated by face-to-face communications, improved access to specific abilities, infrastructure economies etc; warranty an outstanding role for cities in the international economy for several years to come. As cities are likely to remain central, influential decentralizing inclinations shaped by development in information technologies, growing wealth and prosperity, and absolute population growth itself signifies that urban areas, internationally, will persist to extend. The form, whatever it might assume, in the event of such rapid expansion and population growth, and its likely repercussions and impact on the economy as well as the sustainability of exterior environment, raises crucial concerns regarding the role and viability of public sector planning. Given the wide scale expansion of cities and the millions of skyscrapers dominating the skylines of the worlds major cities, and its likely impact; it however cannot be denied that the world today is badly in need for such urbanized structures / planned cities to emerge, in order to sustain the burgeoning global economy and in order to stand the test of time, in terms of economic dominance and sustainability in world markets. It is on account of such modern state of the art cities as London, New York, and Tokyo which command a position of authority and dominates and controls the world economy, that the development and existence of large multinational corporations can be achieved. Key urban centers in diverse corners of the international sphere are flourishing under this new world order, where big urban cities with the state of the art infrastructure are calling the shots and practically influencing the world economy, effectively and effortlessly. Thus, in order to continue to flourish cities the world over will be required to bring about continuous enhancements in its public infrastructure as well as the manner in which they are planned. 4. Illustrations 1. A familiar scene from the 1980s when streets of deteriorating 19th century housing in cities were demolished to make way for new developments Source: Haggett, P., (2001). Encyclopedia of World Geography, Marshall Cavendish, Pp. 978-979 2. Milton Keynes: Fig.1 depicts the housing scheme at Eagleton, Milton Keynes, in the informal English village tradition of town planning while Fig. 2. depicts the modern town with recreational amenities afforded to its citizens An MKDC Model of Dixon Jones’s Netherfield Source: Bendixson, T., Platt, J., (1992). Milton Keynes: Image and Reality, Granta Editions, Pp. 97 References: Bendixson, T., Platt, J., (1992). Milton Keynes: Image and Reality, Granta Editions, Pp. 96 - 97 Clapson, M., (2004). A Social History of Milton Keynes: Middle England / Edge City, Routledge, Pp. 45 Dyos, H. J., Wolff, M., (1999). The Victorian City, Routledge, Pp. 6 Jayne, M., (2006). Cities and Consumption, Routledge, Pp. 196 Haggett, P., (2001). Encyclopedia of World Geography, Marshall Cavendish, Pp. 978-979 Mitchell, S., (1996). Daily Life in Victorian England, Greenwood Publishing Group, Pp.26 - 29, 79 Pacione, M., (2001). Urban Geography: A Global Perspective, Routledge, Pp. 12 Thrall, G. I., (1987). Land Use and Urban Form: The Consumption Theory of Land Rent, Taylor & Francis, Pp. 164 Read More