Physical Activity and the Wider Environment - Essay Example

Physical Activity and the Wider Environment Introduction One of the most pressing issues in our society today is obesity and overweight. The WorldHealth Organization and other international agencies have recognized the enormity of the obesity issue. In association with this issue are the different remedies and interventions which are meant to manage obesity. These remedies include diet and exercise. In relation to physical exercise and physical activity, the manipulation and management of the wider environment seems to have a significant impact on the success of weight management within the general population. This paper shall now discuss the role of the wider environment on the physical activity levels of individuals, specifically within the children population in the UK. Changes in the political climate will also be addressed, evaluating current and past policy on the physical environment and its relationship to weight management. This paper shall first discuss the relationship of physical activity and weight management. Secondly, the environmental elements relating to physical activity will be considered. Lastly, policies impacting on physical activity and weight management will also be presented. A summary and conclusion will then end this paper. This paper is being carried out in order to guide health professionals as well as policy-makers on the changes which have to be made in order to secure environments which are conducive to physical activity, and eventually, to weight management. Body In order to function efficiently, the body is in need of energy; and energy can be provided by the calories which come from food ingested (Brownson, et.al., 2010). The right balance of calories and activity will ensure that the body can function efficiently. Where there are excess calories ingested and unused by the body, these are stored as fat, often adding to the person’s body weight (Brownson, et.al., 2010). Health professionals indicate that there is a certain amount of body fat which the body can safely carry without compromising normal functions. The Body-Mass Index is used as the standard measure for acceptable body weight (Ferrera, 2006). A computed BMI of more than 25 indicates overweight; and higher than 30 indicates obesity. From 18.5 to 25, these are normal levels and below 18.5 levels indicate underweight (Ferrera, 2006). In order to maintain body weight within normal parameters, it is important to ingest the right combination of essential nutrients. In addition, engaging in physical activity can also help secure effective weight management (Samaras, 2007). There are different ways by which physical activity can be secured by most individuals. For most individuals consciously seeking to lose or maintain weight, they would likely motivate themselves to set time apart for physical activity by jogging for an hour each morning or in the afternoon, or by briskly walking around a park, walking or running with their dog, going to the gym, running on a treadmill, taking dance classes, or participating in other forms of physical activity (Samaras, 2007). In general, these activities have to be purposely sought by individuals. However, there are also other ways of securing physical activity and such ways involve the management of the wider environment. The wider neighbourhood includes the general environment where people interact and carry out their daily activities (Ding, et.al., 2011). Among children, their environment mostly includes their home, their neighbourhood, and their school. Most homes these days are not fashioned to accommodate increased or even minimal physical activity (Ding, et.al., 2011). Most preoccupations for children include television, computers, and video games which are all now available in the comfort of their homes (Ding, et.al., 2011). Television sets are remote-controlled, eliminating the necessity of having to get up from the couch to change channels. In fact, most children are hardly knowledgeable about using TV dials on the TV itself and would often spend more time looking for the remote control rather than using the TV dials to change channels (Taylor, et.al., 2011). In the past ten years, video games have also become a common home acquisition. In other words, they have now been marketed at more affordable prices, making them more common home appliances (Taylor, et.al., 2011). Video games now fill most homes, and most applications and games are available on these games, often negating the need for these children to go outside and play. They can play basketball games in their computer, play ‘soldier,’ play football, bowling, and even go fishing in their homes (Taylor, et.al., 2011). Myriad video games have now been made available through the digital format and often played at any time of the day. Noticeably, children and teens play outside less, opting for the comfort of their homes to play their favourite games, including games which are meant to be played outside (Taylor, et.al., 2011). To exacerbate the obesity issue, computers and hand-held computers have now become more available and affordable to the general masses. There is now a computer in most every home (Papas, et.al., 2007). Internet connections are also a significant factor in reducing physical activity for most individuals. In the past where computers were first being used, not everyone could afford it. As a result, most people had to leave their homes and go to computer shops to use computers and surf the World Wide Web (Papas, et.al., 2007). But now, things have changed considerably. The Internet has now become a necessity in the academic and social activities of children and adolescents. Computers are not required for the conduct of school assignments and activities (Papas, et.al., 2007). The internet has become a veritable fount of information for students, in the fulfilment of their home work, and in carrying out research. In fact, libraries and hard book copies of books have in a huge way become irrelevant due to the widespread use of computers and the internet (Papas, et.al., 2007). Children no longer need to trek to libraries to research their homework or carry out other school work. They can just sit in front of their home computers and easily accomplish their school work (Lovasi, et.al., 2009). Minus the activities outdoors through games or visits to libraries, the physical activity of children are significantly reduced. Normally engaging in outdoor activities requires children to burn more calories and thereby burn off excess weight (Lovasi, et.al., 2009). Sitting in front of the television or the computer would only cause limited burning of calories. Moreover, with less physical activity carried out by the body, the metabolism is likely to slow down, further causing weight retention (Sallis and Glanz, 2009). Under these conditions, the home environment therefore cannot be considered conducive to physical activity and to weight loss. The neighbourhood setting is also an important consideration in physical activity. The presence of sidewalks, safe bike lanes, and efficient street designs which can manage traffic, allow safe crossings to parks, gyms, and shops are features which make a significant difference the conduct of physical activities (Ferreira, et.al., 2007). Studies indicate that neighbourhood qualities impact on physical activity and these studies have also considered whether or not individuals move to or choose neighbourhoods with sidewalks and parks where they can be physically active (Ferreira, et.al., 2007). For children, the presence of parks, safe bike lanes, and wide safe sidewalks are favourable neighbourhood elements. They encourage children to go out and explore and engage in various outdoor activities (Ferreira, et.al., 2007). The attraction for the outdoors must however be more enticing than the draw of the TV, the video games, or the computers. The importance of well-maintained parks, of safe neighbourhoods, and of diverse play areas cannot therefore be downplayed (Cleland, et.al., 2011). These neighbourhood parks must be available to accommodate all the diverse needs of the children. Where these elements are not incorporated within neighbourhoods, the children would likely opt to stay in their homes and watch TV, play video games, or surf online (Cleland, et.al., 2011). For low income neighbourhoods, it is not always possible to ensure that suggested favourable plans above can be secured. In effect, low income neighbourhoods are less likely to have parks or to have well-maintained and functional neighbourhoods (van Sluijs, Kriemler, and McMinn, 2011). They are also less likely to sport recreational facilities which can fit the needs of the children and adolescents. Moreover, low income neighbourhoods are also less likely to have gyms or safely fashioned bike paths where their children can bike through or play games in (van Sluijs, et.al., 2011). Moreover, these low income neighbourhoods are also likely to be crowded neighbourhoods with hardly any areas allocated towards physical and other sports activities. Neighbourhood ‘walkability’ has also been considered an element in the conduct of physical activity. Walkable neighbourhoods are those with wide and secure sidewalks, crosswalks, stores, and leisure stores (Katz, et.al., 2005). These elements have a positive impact on securing physical activity and in maintaining body weight. In general, researchers have considered whether or not sprawling communities like those with pedestrian-unfriendly sidewalks and distant houses entice people to drive rather than walk for transport or for leisure (Berke, et.al., 2007). Studies have indicated that walkable communities or less sprawling communities are more likely to have residents engaging in physical activity and more likely to have less BMI levels for their residents (Berke, et.al., 2007). These studies are however not adequately supported, especially as the link between walkability and physical activity in terms of age, socio-economic status, race, and other elements also seem to have a significant impact on physical activity (Li, et.al., 2009). Studies in the US have indicated that individuals living in white or wealthy neighbourhoods with favourable walkability conditions indicate lower rates of obesity; however for low income and black neighbourhoods, no relationship was seen between walkability and obesity (Li, et.al., 2009). It is however apparent that in low income areas, the fear of crime and other elements impact on walkability within their neighbourhoods (Li, et.al., 2009). The importance of safety is therefore a significant element in ensuring physical activity for these neighbourhoods. Aside from walkability, neighbourhood safety as well as sociability has a strong relationship with physical activity (Lee, Ewing, and Sesso, 2009). Risks to the safety of children include reckless drivers, bullies in the playground, as well as stranger danger. Where parents do not believe that their children would be safe to play outside, the less likely they would allow their children to play outdoors (Lee, et.al., 2009). In reviewing results from a Los Angeles study, it was revealed that residents who believed their neighbourhoods to be unsafe and dangerous had higher BMIs as compared to other areas who perceived their neighbourhoods to be safe (Fish, et.al., 2010). Areas with higher crime rates also exhibited lower rates of walking, jogging, or any other physical activity among women and young children (Gomez, et.al., 2004). On the other hand, individuals in areas with strong social relations and cohesion manifested with higher levels of physical activity (Cradock, et.al., 2009). Aside from the home, children also manage their life and activities in the school environment. As such, the conduciveness of their school environment to physical activity is an important element in children engagement in physical activities and weight maintenance/weight loss (Cradock, et.al., 2009). Schools, very much like work places, are ideal areas where programs for improving student fitness can be launched and maintained. Almost all children spend a significant amount of time in their classes and as such, these schools have set aside time and places including play areas and sports facilities where physical activities can be carried out throughout the day (Katz, et.al., 2005). Based on a Cochrane Review of 55 studies related to child obesity prevention activities in schools, the increase of physical activity sessions was deemed an important part in ensuring the efficacy of the program (Katz, et.al., 2008). Programs in the school which manage nutrition as well as physical activity seem to be more effective in managing children’s weight, more than physical activity alone. The importance therefore of combining physical activity with a healthy school lunch menu is the better means of managing and maintaining healthy weight for children and adolescents (Katz, et.al., 2008). The sports facilities of schools can also be used by the surrounding community, especially in low income areas where these facilities are few and far between. Based on a study by Farley, et.al., (2007), allowing for the availability of schoolyards after school hours helped to ensure that children had facilities they could use for their physical activities. Where these children saw opportunities to continue or to play in school yards, they were encouraged to play outdoor games instead of heading directly home (Katz, et.al., 2005). In knowing that school yards would be closed after hours, children often ended up opting for indoor activities instead of outdoor activities (Katz, et.al., 2005). Moreover, allowing open access to school yards is also a means of helping out of school youths in maintaining some form of physical activity (Katz, et.al., 2005). The importance of active travel to school has also gained much attention in the management of weight and the engagement in physical activity. During the 1960s, children have been known to walk or bike to school (Harvard School of Public Health, 2012). Recent statistics indicate however that only about 13% of elementary and middle school children still walk or bike to school (McDonald, et.al., 2011). Some studies have been able to point out a link between school commutes and body weight, with those walking to school likely to have lower BMI and those taking the bus or being driven to work being more likely to have higher BMI (Lubans, et.al., 2011). Government policies also have a significant impact on physical activity and the environment. Policies are significant resources which can be used in order to manage the environment and the lifestyles of the general population (Heath, et.al., 2006). Public health professionals are very much interested in securing policy changes as well as securing significant investments in transportation infrastructure with the end goal of increasing physical activity (Heath, et.al., 2006). In other countries like the US, policies have been set allowing federal housing loans to be allocated towards highway development in order to ensure the establishment of sprawling suburban neighbourhoods (Harvard School of Public Health, 2012). Along with the introduction of various advancements in automotive technology as well as manufacturing capacity, residential landscapes have become less conducive to physical activity. It is however still possible for towns and cities to secure land-use policies including zoning regulations, building regulations in order to secure strong environments which ultimately support physical activity (Heath, et.al., 2006). Mixed land use also seems to be an important policy seeking to increase physical activity, especially as finding shops, offices, and schools near residential activities can encourage physical activity among residents (Feng, et.al., 2010). The use of public transportation can potentially assist sedentary individuals, especially those from low income families (Besser and Dannenberg, 2005). Having to walk to and from public transport services involves physical activity before and during the trip. Walking is linked with a decreased risk for obesity and car travel can sometimes have the opposite effect (Frank, et.al., 2004). A study by Frank, et.al., (2004) was able to establish that for every additional hour each day spent in cars, there is a 6% increase in obesity. Hence, the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention have highlighted the importance of communities having better access to public transportation in order to manage the obesity issue. With improved access, people would also be more inclined to use it, instead of their cars (Khan, Sobush, and Keener, 2009). Government policies which secure bike and pedestrian street designs are also effective means by which the environment can be managed in order to support physical activity (Khan, et.al., 2009). Travel trends in most parts of the world are often not conducive for physical activity and general public health. Studies indicate that children and adults use their bicycles for just a small percentage of their trips and activities (Pucher, et.al., 2011). In the Netherlands, an improved percentage for bike use has been seen (as cited by Pucher, et.al., 2011). By contrast, in the US, only 10% of their trips are undertaken through walking and this percentage has not changed in the past ten years (Pucher, et.al., 2011). In evaluating the success of active transport in Europe, various policy options have been suggested. Various policies have highlighted the importance of securing safer streets for walking and biking (Harvard School of Public Health, 2012). These policies include lower speed limits, longer pedestrian crossings, wider sidewalks, and the application of traffic-calming resources including plants in roadways and city zones. Protected bike lanes have also been secured through various policies for different territories (Woodcock, 2007). Other choices include provisions for incentives in leaving cars at home and using public transport. Making it easier and safer to walk or bike to the public transport system is also a strong alternative to one’s use of cars. London was able to establish policies in order to secure improvements in physical activity within their environment, making significant improvements in bike paths, bike parking, and issuing traffic safety policies in 2000 (Harvard School of Public Health, 2012). Issuing fees for cars entering the city also helped make important changes in the physical activity of the general public (Pucher, et.al., 2010). These policy changes were able to increase the use of bikes and also reduced the incidence of serious cycling injuries among bikers (Pucher, et.al., 2010). These policies, including other environmental conditions mentioned above indicate how physical activity is very much linked with the environment and how conditions in the environment can either encourage or discourage physical activity (Maibach, Steg, and Anable, 2009). Therefore, ensuring changes in the environment to support physical activity can be carried out in order to meet the higher goals of reducing obesity and maintaining normal BMI levels. Conclusion The environment as well as the policies which manage such environment has a significant impact on where, when, as well as how and how much physical activity can be carried out by individuals. Limited physical activity has a major impact on the obesity issue, and creating an environment which is conducive and which welcomes physical activity can help manage this issue. There are various elements needed in order to secure activity-friendly environments. These elements include how streets are constructed and how communities are built. Streets which are safe and conducive for walking and biking help encourage biking and walking. Parks and playground which are plentiful and well-maintained can also help support physical activity. Admittedly, communities would likely find it difficult to secure environments which are conducive to physical activity. However, the government officials can help provide policies which can help implement improved environments supporting physical activity. These policies would help manage the establishment of safe and wider sidewalks, as well as bike paths; policies can also ensure allocations for the establishment of parks and other recreational facilities which can support physical activity for children. References Berke, E., Koepsell, T., Moudon, A., Hoskins, R., & Larson, E. (2007). Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older persons. Am J Public Health, vol. 97:486-92. Brownson, R., Chriqui, J., Burgeson, C., Fisher, M., & Ness, R., (2010). Translating epidemiology into policy to prevent childhood obesity: the case for promoting physical activity in school settings. Ann Epidemiol., vol. 20:436-44. Cleland, V., Timperio, A., Salmon, J., Hume, C., Telford, A., & Crawford, D. (2011). A longitudinal study of the family physical activity environment and physical activity among youth. Am J Health Promot., vol. 25:159-67. Cradock, A., Kawachi, I., Colditz, G., Gortmaker, S., & Buka, S. (2009). Neighborhood social cohesion and youth participation in physical activity in Chicago. Soc Sci Med., vol. 68:427-35. Ding, D., Sallis, J., Kerr, J., Lee, S., & Rosenberg, D. (2011). Neighborhood environment and physical activity among youth, a review. Am J Prev Med., vol. 41: 442-55. Farley, T., Meriwether, R., Baker, E., Watkins, L., Johnson, C., & Webber, L. (2007). Safe play spaces to promote physical activity in inner-city children: results from a pilot study of an environmental intervention. Am J Public Health, vol. 97:1625-31. Feng, J., Glass, T., Curriero, F., Stewart, W., & Schwartz, B. (2010). The built environment and obesity: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence. Health Place, vol. 6:175-90. Ferreira, I., van der Horst, K., Wendel-Vos, W., Kremers, S., van Lenthe, F. & Brug, J. (2007). Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth—a review and update. Obes Rev., vol. 8:129-54. Ferrera, L. (2006). Focus on body mass index and health research. New York: Nova Science. Fish, J., Ettner, S., Ang, A., & Brown, A. (2010). Association of perceived neighborhood safety on body mass index. Am J Public Health, vol. 100:2296-303. Frank, L., Andresen, M., & Schmid, T. (2004). Obesity relationships with community design, physical activity, and time spent in cars. Am J Prev Med., vol. 27:87-96. Frank, L., Schmid, T., Sallis, J., Chapman, J., & Saelens, B. (2005). Linking objectively measured physical activity with objectively measured urban form: findings from SMARTRAQ. Am J Prev Med., vol. 28:117-25. Gomez, J., Johnson, B., Selva, M., & Sallis, J. (2004). Violent crime and outdoor physical activity among inner-city youth. Prev Med., vol. 39:876-81. Harvard School of Public Health. (2012). Environmental barriers to activity. Retrieved from http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/obesity-prevention-source/obesity-causes/physical-activity-environment/ Heath, G., Brownson, R., Kruger, J., Miles, R., Powell, K., & Ramsey, L. (2006). The effectiveness of urban design and land use and transport policies and practicies to increase physical actvity: a systematic review. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, vol. 3:S55-S76. Katz, D., O’Connell, M., & Yeh, M. (2005). Public health strategies for preventing and controlling overweight and obesity in school and worksite settings: a report on recommendations of the Task Force on Community Preventive Services. MMWR Recomm Rep., vol. 54:1-12. Katz, D., O’Connell, M., Njike, V., Yeh, M., & Nawaz, H. (2008). Strategies for the prevention and control of obesity in the school setting: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Obes (Lond)., vol. 32:1780-9. Khan, L., Sobush, K., & Keener, D. (2009). Recommended community strategies and measurements to prevent obesity in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep., vol. 58:1-26. Lee, I., Ewing, R., & Sesso, H. (2009). The built environment and physical activity levels: the Harvard Alumni Health Study. Am J Prev Med., vol. 37:293-8. Li, F., Harmer, P., & Cardinal, B. (2009). Built environment and 1-year change in weight and waist circumference in middle-aged and older adults: Portland Neighborhood Environment and Health Study. Am J Epidemiol., vol. 169:401-8. Lovasi, G., Hutson, M., Guerra, M., & Neckerman, K. (2009). Built environments and obesity in disadvantaged populations. Epidemiol Rev., vol. 31: 7-20. Lubans, D., Boreham, C., Kelly, P. & Foster, C. (2011). The relationship between active travel to school and health-related fitness in children and adolescents: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act., vol. 8:5. Maibach, E., Steg, L., & Anable, J. (2009). Promoting physical activity and reducing climate change: opportunities to replace short car trips with active transportation. Prev Med., vol. 49:326-7. McDonald, N., Brown, A., Marchetti, L., & Pedroso, M. (2011). U.S. school travel, 2009 an assessment of trends. Am J Prev Med., 41:146-51. Papas, M., Alberg, A., Ewing, R., Helzlsouer, K., Gary, T., & Klassen, A., (2007). The built environment and obesity. Epidemiol Rev., 29:129-43. Pucher, J., Dill, J., & Handy, S. (2010). Infrastructure, programs, and policies to increase bicycling: an international review. Prev Med., vol. 50 Suppl 1:S106-25. Pucher, J., Buehler, R., Merom, D., & Bauman, A. (2011). Walking and cycling in the United States, 2001-2009: evidence from the National Household Travel Surveys. Am J Public Health, vol. 101 Suppl 1:S310-7. Taylor, M., McCormick, D., Impson, R., Shawis, T., & Griffin, M. (2011) activity promoting gaming systems in exercise and rehabilitation. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, vol. 48, no. 10: 1171-1186 Sallis, J. & Glanz, K. (2008). Physical activity and food environments: solutions to the obesity epidemic. Milbank Q., vol. 87: 123-54. Samaras, T. (2007). Human body size and the laws of scaling: Physiological, performance, growth, longevity and ecological ramifications. New York: Nova Science. van Sluijs, E., Kriemler, S., & McMinn, A. (2011). The effect of community and family interventions on young people’s physical activity levels: a review of reviews and updated systematic review. Br J Sports Med., vol. 45:914-22. Woodcock, J., Banister, D., & Edwards, P. (2007). Energy and transport. Lancet, vol. 370:1078- 88. Read More