Sustainable Development - Essay Example

Introduction Current research seeks a solution-focused approach to sustainable development issues that reflect the biology of the interaction of organisms and the external environment (Allen, Tainter, & Hoekstra, 2003). A dominant activity of environmentalists is to lobby for less emphasis on lifestyles and industries that utilize natural resources. Sustainability in the 21st century expresses the value of care and respect for the environment, and for each other as human beings. The bar for sustainability is practices that benefit the whole ecosystem of Earth. The goal is two-pronged; well being for humans and other ecosystems; and the control of stress and impacts. However, many economists disagree with this approach, claiming that constraints on the use of natural resources will inhibit the advancement of modern and creative societies (Allen, Tainter, & Hoekstra, 2003). It has been commented upon that the current discourse may be confounded by political biases, which serve only to limit the ability of societies to plan for a sustainable future (Allen, Tainter, & Hoekstra, 2003). It is generally conceded within the ecological community that there are limits to the human ability to produce and consume of the natural environment. Present research concerns are oriented at global unsustainable development and the threat to human survival within the 'earth household' (Edwards, 2005). From the research findings has arisen an emphasis on sustainability education, both at the academic level, and at the level of the every-day consumer or the corporate executive, all of whom are inter-connected within systems of the global ecosystem called Earth. By comparing a commercial and political organization based in the UK, this paper aims to identify their individual views of sustainable development, and to assess their beliefs and practices according to Harrison's framework. It is anticipated that this paper will; provide the reader with a reflective review of past and present human activities that impact within ecological systems; to extend the reader's insight into the core elements of Harrison's framework; to gain insight into the beliefs and practices of two case study organizations; and to contribute toward raising the awareness of consumers to the critical need for sustainable lifestyles, industry and economic-political institutions. First, this paper will review the current state of sustainability literature. Secondly, Harrison's framework will be outlined. Next, the differences in approach to sustainability by two UK organizations will be detailed. The implications of these theories in regard to ecological education will by highlighted. Next, the implications of the approaches with regard to Harrison's theory shall be evaluated in regard to setting international policy of sustainable development. Finally, a conclusion will synthesize the main points of this paper, present recommendations for future research directions, and emphasise the importance for ecological education in 21st century living. Review of the Literature Gaining momentum during the early 1970s, the concept and application of environmental literacy has achieved depth and comprehensiveness, and has been adopted into education systems of many industrial and developing nations (Goodland, 2002). This means that a person has the ability to successfully interact with their environment on a daily basis with a general understanding of how societies and other individuals interact with each other, as well as other parts of the natural world, in a sustainable way. To achieve this awareness and motivation to act requires knowledge, skills and competencies that foster an attitude of environmental consideration in day-to-day lifestyles (Campaign for Environmental Literacy [CFEL], 2005). Humans have been remiss in the application of environmental knowledge and some attribute this to a deep believe within industrial cultures that nature is an object to be used, exploited and profited from. Unfortunately, this mindset appears to be embedded across academic disciplines as well as within informal institutions. It has been contended that Western society at least is generally environmentally illiterate and so unable to reach goals for sustainable growth that will ensure the (high quality) existence of the human species (Golley, 1998). As stated by Golley (1998): We need to express our understanding of connectedness by consciously affirming that we are part of environments, connected to them in ways we do not understand, and that we accept a responsibility for being connected to another. A simple statement of the fact of being connected is a first step towards a deeper acknowledgement of one's role and responsibility (p. 232). Researchers began to explore valid frameworks that could engage people in sustainable living habits. Importantly, theorists highlighted the critical role a cultural group's history played in determining their viable future (Iverson, 2005). A part of this concept is that defining parameters for ecosystem management involves a continuum of spatial and temporal dimensions. Hence, it is generally agreed upon that the scientific method (with its emphasis on systematic questioning, procedure, evaluation and conclusions) needs to be more fully understood by citizens of the world, especially with its application on natural systems (Iverson, 2005). It is evident that the personal choices that are made by individuals at the day-to-day level culminate to have a global impact on ecologies, including human socio-cultural communities. However, there appears to be a lack of literature reviewing and investigating the processes of human psychology that are involved in choosing to use sustainable practices. Thinking About Forever and Communities by Choice, are two freely distributed e-books that seek to provide people with informed choices with regard to sustainable living practices. For example, offering guidance in the management of time and finances when "living with intention (Communities by Choice, 1997-2006). Harrison's Framework Details Niel Harrison (2001) has critiqued the political, economic, technological and ethical arguments that maintain current international policies of sustainable development. He emphasises that current models are lacking in their accuracy, and are at times impractical and hinder sustainable goals. At present, Harrison points out, sustainable development lacks a standard international definition, limiting the generalization of many of the results of studies due to a variety of ways of operationalising the variable. Consequently, investigation has been unable to define the concept of SD objectively, as researchers are relying on a range of subjective definitions. Over the past 10 years the term "sustainability" has been used in a variety of contexts, and some argue that this has blurred its true definition (Edwards, 2005). However, the rapid shift in awareness of the general population to take better care of our future world has been identified as a period of transformation for human societies. It has also been noted that lifestyle and corporate practices have begun to catch up with ecological theory (Odum & Barret, 2005). The "ecological" approach as a clear and defined discipline presented holistic theories about the ecosystem of which humans were a part. The word ecology represents the entire environmental "house" of Earth. So that ecological study embraces the entire web of life across the globe. The distribution of organisms, their interactions and the physical environment (habitat) they exist within is the study of ecological science (Wikipedia, 2006). It is ironic that the situation exists at all, given that 21st century science advocates use of empirical or systematic research methods. Harrison has pointed out that the lack of consensus in defining sustainability among "developed" nations indicates a remaining anthropocentric attitude (Harrison, 2001). This limits investigation, to provide only impractical definitions that ignore critical ethical ambiguities inherent in technology and their own personal agendas. Harrison details the conceptualisation of SD among the average North American stakeholder; for the capitalist, SD is a problem balancing production with technology; for the environmentalist, SD is an ethical dilemma, how to maintain a duty to care and respect all within the ecology while providing for innovation; and for developing countries, their emerging policy makers approach SD as an equitable distribution of resources and power. The multiple meanings attributed to SD make the term highly ambiguous and so limits communication between people, industries and nations (Harrison, 2001). According to Harrison, SD can be clearly defined, and is created through the interplay of changing policy principles that arise from continuous changes in beliefs, values, attitudes, and toward scientific knowledge and its practices. SD policy can then be applied to practical situations within small and large communities, and at the national and international level. Organisational Definitions of Sustainable Development The Blair Government The Prime Minister Tony Blair has stated the need for the Britain to set a broad common agenda and efficient multinational corporations are necessary to enable a stable climate and sustainable development (10 Downing St.com, 2004). He contended that the challenge for his government was to maintain the synthesis of environmental modernization and the government's goals for Britain as an economic market economy. Blair has noted that international tensions and strained relations indicate the critical need for common ground and policies with regard to SD. He speaks of "unstable states" producing weapons of mass destruction that threaten the security of the globe as an immediate and direct threat. In contrast, he portrays environmental degradation as an issue that "affects us over time," and must be planned for over several governments (10 Downing St.com, 2004). As such, the long-term issue of SD rarely aligns with political time-scales. However, Blair argues that his government has put into place national policy standards that will positively support SD into the next generation, and so well beyond this current government. He says, "the truth is investment now to meet the challenge of these issues is worth every penny in the long-term" (10 Downing St.com, 2004). The Blair Government appears to be aware of SD as an ongoing issue that involves all beings within the eco-system of Earth. For example, he says that global poverty and environmental degradation are the two primary factors driving sustainable development. He goes on further to state that the international community needs a common documented agreement to guide cooperation among nations as they address the same issues. Again, this perspective supports the assumption that the Blair Government takes an ecological approach to SD and international policy formation. Interestingly, Blair contends that wealth and opportunity need to be more fairly allocated, which boarders on the motivations of the environmentalists. However, keeping to his capitalist form, Blair does not go on to define "fair allocation," which is conceptually different from "equal allocation". Tony Blair does concede the need for a new international standard approach to environmental management and protection and the cultivation of SD. This view aligns with Harrison's framework for developing a unified global definition of SD to enable effective change. Blair has repeatedly commented that he views his government's investment in SD as benefiting not only the environment, but also economic prosperity and community relations. Hence, he maintains strong capitalist goals or profit, economic growth and innovation, although he buffers these with social and environmental considerations. Commercial Organisation Virgin Atlantic Airlines is a commercial organisation that recognises its ability to continue a high level of growth can only occur through SD (Virgin Atlantic Airlines, 2002-2003). Further, Virgin admits that SD requires a holistic approach by the company, and so all facets of the airline are involved. Since the 1980s, Virgin Airlines has pioneered environmentally friendly practices within its organization, such as using biodegradable plastic bags. From this point of view, it appears that Virgin takes an environmentalist approach to SD, whilst maintaining capitalist goals. However, in contrast to the Blair Government, Virgin appears to make SD more immediate, and tends to de-emphasise organizational growth as a key focus of business strategy. Repeatedly, Virgin Airlines emphasise that current, and continued, high growth has only occurred due to it corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies. As such, it seems that Virgin approaches SD as an ethical dilemma, an ecological puzzle to be solved. Voluntarily contributing to a better and cleaner society, is according to Virgin, imperative to enable good business practices. Especially as organizational growth is seen as inter-dependent on the Virgin brand, which reflects positive social values and behaviours. The performance indicators used for Virgin are; economic, environmental and social. As part of their CSR strategy, Virgin Airlines has regularly published annual reports of their environmental commitment and outcomes. Unlike the Blair Government, Virgin Airlines has broken down its SD strategy into component parts to aid profiling of environmental issues within the organization, and to contribute to CSR. For example, with regards to its policy on water management, the "three Rs" are applied; reduce, reuse and recycle (Virgin Atlantic Airlines, 2002-2003). Minimisation of waste reduces environmental impact as well as landfill volumes and costs. Numerous items that are identified as redundant by the airline are given to the CRISIS charity for homeless shelters. And equipment that is deemed redundant is donated to British Aid of children in poverty in developing nations. Further, suppliers to the airline are chosen for their commitment to recycling programmes, the head office now operates a car share scheme for staff, the office lights are motion sensitive and Green Energy is used from sustainable sources. Virgin also acknowledges the critical need for airlines to take responsibility for their contributions to SD on a global scale (Virgin Atlantic Airlines, 2002-2003). To achieve these aims, Virgin contents the need to constantly invest in new technology, to improve fuel efficiency and to reduce aircraft noise levels. Their Corporate Health, Safety & Environment (HS&E) Strategy 2003/2004, combined environmental management and health and safety to provide an effective and sustainable control processes. Virgin admits that within the organization the profile of environmental issues needs to be highlighted more effectively. As such, the organization has introduced an "environmental performance" section on their website for staff to access, as well as publishing the internal report. It is the long-term goal of Virgin to have SD as the driving principle to all aspects of Virgin Atlantic products and services. It appears that Virgin Airlines is committed to SD policies as key organizational documents. However, the CSR report does not mention Virgin's position with regard to an international standard policy on SD. Implications for the Usefulness of a Standard International SD Policy Sustainable living is of critical concern to 21st century societies. It has become clear over the last fifty years especially that the human species is part of a larger system of life on Earth, which has been termed an ecosystem. As part of an ecosystem human beings are able to affect other sub-systems, such as the natural environment or each other. Ecology is the science of ecosystems, and is a discipline within the overarching school of biology. Ecology takes a holistic approach to the investigation of life on Earth, and so integrates social systems of humans and other animals, as well as looking at their cultural practices, such as population growth and composition. The science of ecology has contributed much to the understanding of natural systems and their inter-action with industrialized production processes. As a consequence, it has been realized that ecological management is of critical need, and that to achieve this international standards of definitions and expectations must be developed. Presently, research into how best to achieve and maintain sustainable development is flourishing. Importantly, solution-focused approaches are sought, and taught, with an emphasis on the biology of the interaction between humans and natural systems. The increasing research interest into sustainable practices is due primarily to the global events of unsustainable development and environmental degradation, with consequential climatic changes and socio-political instability. Added to this realization, is the acknowledgment by most economists and researchers that the Earth is comprised of limited and finite natural resources. In terms of international economic sustainability, it has been noted that when economic systems were small, the environment was able to regenerate and assimilate indefinitely. Many traditionally aligned economists still hold the view that the Earth has not reached its limits for growth. However, it is clearly evident in these current times that the environment is finite. More unconventional economists see today's societies as being on the road to peril in terms of their approach to consumerism, conservation and regeneration (Goodland, 2002). Alternatively, in regards to social sustainability (political-cultural and community focused processes and issues), it is clear that collaborative, cross-disciplinary problem-solving approaches are needed at the global level (Allen, Tainter, & Hoekstra, 2003). So that sustainability practices are recognized as having to go beyond recycling activities, and the preservation of biodiversity. Both the Blair Government and Virgin Airlines appear to acknowledge this need and seek to support the development of SD policies. However, only the Blair Government explicitly indicates the necessity of an international a consensus and common approach. Although, considering the commitment of Virgin, it is unlikely that the organization would not support an international standard policy providing that the airline, as a member of a democratic nation, was included in the decision-making processes. Critical international community needs within SD policy that has been highlighted by the approaches of the Blair Government and Virgin Airlines are: Education Health care Social interaction Support networks Spiritual enrichment Food, clothing and shelter It seems that any international definition of SD needs to incorporate a complex inter-play of psycho-social, political, economic and environmental factors. Hence, a healthy international ecology requires a healthy physical environment, as well as a healthy economy for capitalist societies. Ultimately, it is evident that Harrison's call to pay more attention to the operationalisation of SD is correct. Both the Blair Government and Virgin Airlines have a common goal: to support SD. However, each organization defines SD in a different way, and this difference in meaning directly affects economic strategy choices. The Blair Government takes the more capitalistic approach of the two due to it being a political organization, and so temporary with a strong agenda that involves more than the environment. Whereas Virgin Airlines has a more environmentalist approach, perceiving a moral duty in caring for and preserving the environment as the organization is part of a holistic ecological system. In light of these differences, it is likely that consensus of a definition for SD may still be somewhat distant, as the underlying motivations for cultivating SD attitudes and practices are diametrically opposed. A capitalist approach will ultimately place profits and economic growth over SD practices, because profits and economic growth are what the concept of capitalism is about. The more environmental approach can be appreciated as much more progressive, in that it is environment-centred, and seeks to distribute resources to where they are needed, and in the process eliminate waste and redundancy. Whilst this is not the equal distribution approach of policy makers from developing countries, it is a positive step toward access to resources based on need. Overall, if the approaches of the two organizations discussed can be generalised to the international community, then although the unresolved discourse must continue, such opinions prove useful in maintaining the momentum of SD beliefs, practices and policy making. As such, the approaches aid in the development of an international document, as definitions are broken down and many aspects of the responsibilities involved are delineated and solutions that are just are implemented. Conclusion Sustainable development in the 21st century is a critical research issue. Sustainability refers to actual practices that allow high quality of life whiled maintaining the care and respect for the natural environment, both now and in the future. With the viewpoint of the Earth as a 'household' an ecological approach embraces sustainable practices as they reflect the need to be aware of the bigger picture, and how humans and other phenomenon fit into that picture. Sustainability is a systematic concept that integrates the social, natural and economic elements of a culture and ensures their continuity. Marring the progress in the development of international values, practices and policies is the myriad of definitions of the concept of SD. Harrison presents the argument that a lack of consensus of definition about SD limits the practical application of existing definitions, and hinders investigation and implementation of policies and interventions. The Blair Government is a political organisation that appears to support SD policies within Britain, and encourages the development of an international standard of SD approach. However, the Blair Government does not seem to take an environmentally-centred approach, and ultimately provides a capitalist definition of SD, that is, a problem between balancing economic growth with environmental care. In contrast Virgin Airlines incorporates SD as one of its core operating principles, on equal footing with economic and social commitments. However, Virgin does not comment on international discourse of SD, nor seeks to contribute to an international definition of the concept. Both organizations positively contribute to them useful application of a SD definition, in that they support SD, and provide new insights as to how to resolve the definition dilemma. For example, by way of evaluating their definitions and strategies and so contributing to the research process of what works, what doesn't, and what remains to be investigated. It is evident that discourse must continue as to how to define and operationalise SD so that practical policies and practices can be established that have effective outcomes. References 10 Downing Street (2004). PM speech on climate change (September 14). Retrieved September 25, 2006 from http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/page6333.asp Allen, T. F. H., Tainter, J. A., & Hoekstra, T. W. (2003). Supply-side sustainability. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Campaign for Environmental Literacy (CFEL)(2005). What is environmental literacy. Retrieved September 27, 2006 from http://www.democracyinaction.org/dia/organizations/cel/content.jspcontent_KEY=427&t=facts Communities by Choice (1997-2006). Advancing the practice of ecology. Retrieved September 24th, 2006 from http://www.communitiesbychoice.org/ Edwards, A. R. (2005). The Sustainability Revolution: Portrait of a Paradigm Shift. Gabriola Island, B. C.: New Society Publishes. Golley, F. B. (1998). A Primer for Environmental Literacy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Goodland, R. (2002). Sustainability: Human, social, economic and environmental. Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change. Retrieved September 27, 2006 from http://www.wiley.co.uk/egec/pdf/GA811-W.PDF#search=%22 (economic% 20sustainability)%22 Iverson, D. (2005). Supply-side sustainability. Retrieved September 27, 2006 from http://forestpolicy.typepad.com/ecoecon/2006/03/supplyside_sust.html Harrison, N. (2001). Constructing Sustainable Development. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. Odum, E. P., & Barrett, G. W. (2005). Fundamentals of Ecology, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Virgin Atlantic Airlines ( ). Corporate and Social Responsibility, 2002/2003. Retrieved September 26, 2006 from http://www.virgin-atlantic.com/tridion/images/Corporate_Social_Responsibility_2002-2003_tcm12-13537.pdf#search=%22virgin%20airlines%20(sustainable%20development)%22 Wikipedia (2006). Sustainability. Retrieved September 26, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability Read More