The Use of Underground Resources: A Diagnostic Feature of the Anthropocene - Research Paper Example

? The Use of Underground Resources: A Diagnostic Feature of the Anthropocene The Use of Underground Resources: A Diagnostic Feature of the Anthropocene Introduction The anthropocene epic has become a reality in almost every segment of the universe. It is still a new area of much controversy and continuous knowledge and information are emerging at a fast pace. The anthropocene is a geologic era that seems to be manifested by human behavior. Human beings have continued to exert pressure on landscape in so many diverse ways. These are exemplified in building and construction, infrastructural developments as well as mineralogy. Human activity with regard to the anthropocene era has been shown to interfere with almost every aspect of the environment. Within the earth’s lithosphere, a clear series of subsidence movement has been observed in areas close to abandoned mines. Also, earthquakes have occurred at alarming rates even in regions that were not prone to earthquakes. Within the hydrosphere, the impact of mining has led to sedimentation flux along rivers and oceans. The pathways have undergone morphological adjustments and the homeostasis in these hydrological features has significantly changed. In the atmosphere, the impact has led to the emission of toxic substances that continue to cause serious climatic change. Within the biosphere, the activity has led to the altering of established ecological niches (Zalasiewicz, Williams, Haywood & Ellis 2011). A number of mining areas and basins have been used as anthroposystems. In such progressive systems, there is a correlation between human and natural factors. Chemical and physical impacts have led to the scattering of the soil on the surfaces. Additionally, underground surfaces are affected by these exploitations which continue even after the termination of the concessions. Physical destruction is evident by the collapse of the mining walls, artificial openings and subsidence motion. On the surface of the sites, gravity movements are caused periodically by the lagging composites and decantation basins. Such unprecedented motions are also responsible for deterioration of the landscape and in some incidences coal emissions. On the other hand, chemical impacts due to mining may lead to serious damages. The chemicals and toxic elements are carried by rain water into hydrological pathways. Chemical processes of alkalization, acidification, and oxidation may lead to the so called sulphur rain. The toxic metalloids can gain entry into the sea water and nearby streams hence poisoning to aquatic life. Consequently, the feeding on these life forms by humans may lead to deaths. There is bioaccumulation of these toxic substances along the food chain. Other hazardous dangers are exemplified in the inhalation of toxic gaseous substances from the mine fields. The incidence of asbestos encounter in the mine fields exposes the workers to cancer. This is because asbestos are potent carcinogenic substances. Therefore, it is imperative that mining sites should be closed in accordance with an integrated approach. The multi-facieted mechanism should put into consideration factors such as the interest of the nearby dwellers and global restructuring issues. Based on commercial, socio-economic and industrial factors, the restoration of mining sites should aim at preserving the flora and fauna of the setting. Restoration techniques are diverse and include phytoremediation, electro kinetic water treatment and reshaping in terms of morphology (Zalasiewicz, Williams, Haywood & Ellis 2011). Literature Review The extent of human pressure on the earth since the nineteenth century has been a major focus for scientist. Anthropogenic global adjustment has formed central focus to both geologists and scientists. These anthropogenic changes affect the land, biosphere, climate as well as the oceans. This has led to the emergence of the term anthropocene. As a new concept, this term is defined as the new geological era. It remains a widely debated area among geologists. Matters arising from this phenomenon with regard to the magnitude, extent and impact on the environment provide a focal point in addressing this issue. As clearly defined by Paul Crutzen, the Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, anthropocene denotes the contemporary interval in time on earth whereby key processes are dictated by human activities (Hooke, 2000). Anthropocene is thought to have begun thousand years long ago with the agrarian revolution and advancements in the technological aspects in farming. Therefore, earth moving among the humans can be traced back in the Paleolithic era. The early man as depicted by the primate Homo erectus was dwelling in walls supported by minute boulders. These seasonal dwellings had foundations that were characterized by floors made of rubble. Stones were also employed in hunting and the process of food preparation. Such items were exemplified by flints that were sharp edged. Digging tools were also prominent among these primates. Into the Mesozoic era, the primates were diversified in terms of activities. During this period, the early man was seen to be more of a farmer and a herder. It is thought that the change of activities was due to population pressure because a large number of people could be fed on agricultural activities. People were obliged to build stable structures made of sun dried blocks and bricks. Due to the gradual rise in the population, there was the need for drinking water. This prompted the people to build dams, dykes and even irrigation canals (Zalasiewicz, Williams, Haywood & Ellis 2011). During this era, the people also discovered that copper smelting was an important activity. Consequently, the people developed the urge to search the metallic copper and tin. The metals and their alloys were used for casting tools such as hoes and spades. The individuals who were classified as the rich in the societies initiated construction of stone structures as monuments and memorials. The burials were done using large amounts of rock material of up to 200,000 tonnes. These structures are exemplified by the pyramids found in Egypt. The metallic tools were used for excavation of stones and building bricks. The invention of the wheel during this period increased the ability of human beings as geomorphic agents. Then was the Iron Age in which iron was the major discovery. The iron was used in the manufacturing of hammers, blades, wedges and chisels that further contributed to earth moving activities (Chamley, 2003). Industrial revolution was the next epic whereby steam power machines were predominant. With the requirement of fuel for their functioning, the demand for fuel heightened. Coal was the most common fuel in driving these machines. Coal mining increased significantly during this period and still remains an important activity in the United States of America. Machines that consumed power in terms of fuel were also invented as illustrated by the combustion engines. Quantitative analysis of the total earth moved over the past is significant. The process is inherent of several factors including the accumulation of the material transported, time frame and the population. Several factors play an important role in attributing humans as geomorphic agents. One such factor is agricultural activities carried out by human beings. Agrarian revolution saw the development of farming practices that were catastrophic such as the clearing of fields. The destruction of these farmlands for agricultural purposes increases soil erosion. In order to approximate the extent of agricultural activities on human geomorphic character, it is imperative to determine the yearly sediment deposition. The area of the land quantified in hectares should be also put into consideration as well as the number of people dependent on the activity. Anthropocene is treated as a geological trend in comparison to the earths past events. However, a notable exception in this phenomenon is linked to human behavior in the context of economic, social and political aspects (Hooke, 2000). The changes that occur due to earth surface processes are not spatial either do they occur in a homogenous way. These activities are temporal and seem to be changing over a period of time. Syvitski and Kettner clearly depict that the effect of human beings on sediment flux emanates in the last 3,000 years. Within the past one thousand years, this phenomenon gradually up surged as a result of activities such as mining, agriculture, transport, climate change and deforestation. Sediment deposition along water pathways mainly occur as a result of adjustments in climate as well as human activities. It is worth noting that this sediment flux is dependent on time. An example of such an occurrence is the Athabasca oils and deposits in Canada. The oils sands measure between 40 to 6o meters in thickness and encroached by less than 70 meters of overburden (Syvitski & Kettner 2011). This phenomenon of anthropogenic activities is intimately linked to the ever increasing human population. As a starting point, it’s worthwhile noting that human beings serve as geomorphic agents. Human beings are constantly involved in the movement of large quantities of rocks and soil. In comparison to other geomorphic agents, human beings by far surpass the amount of earth they move. A number of this earth and earth products are intentionally carried away through mining and construction developments. Additionally, the humans are responsible for the unintentional movement of soil as a result of agricultural by-products. Hence, some researchers have brought forward the argument that human beings are developing a mass extermination to compete everything in the geologic time frames. Additionally, it has been postulated that humans are using many resources at a faster pace than they create the reserves (Hooke, 2000). Additionally, a different perspective on the idea of anthropocene can be visualized by having a less conventional peer into the future of the geologic time. This is certainly true considering the fact that diminutive geologic time levels surpass the ability to predict human history. This approach termed as the futurist perspective seems to be correct in the common misconceptions and beliefs. Geologic time scales are a continuum of processes that are highly dynamic. There exists practical relevance for sustained geologic prediction. A suggestion to most geohazard undertakings should consider forecasting a few decades into the future. However, in this approach, geological preservation of high level nuclear disposals has a tendency of using stable estimates. The future of man’s environmental changes may be categorized as low, medium and high impact. There is no doubt that much input is required in tackling this trend of anthropogenic activities. It remains difficult because the methods and descriptive analysis of the past and present geologic events vary significantly (Chamley, 2003). Problem statement The research will try to support and push forward the understanding of the anthropocene trend. Additionally, it will allow the participation of ongoing dialogues and support anthropocene as a formal geological time scale. As an important industrial undertaking in Colorado, the mining program has intensified in the last two centuries. Therefore, this activity can be shown to illustrate the potentiality of human activity with regard to transformation of the earth’s surface and landscapes. The past occurrences of events remain deeply imprinted in the geologic records. Consequently, the research seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the underground minerals or resources excavated? 2. Where has the mining and excavations occurred? 3. When did the excavations of these minerals begin in Colorado? 4. How has the magnitude of underground mining changed over time in Colorado? In helping us understand the changes that have taken place between 1850 and 2010, we will use available data from the USGS. Additionally, we will employ GIS technology and remotely sensed images to display the occurrence and usage of underground reserves. Hypotheses Different types of underground resources have been continuously mined in Colorado’s mining history. The major metals mined are silver, gold, and copper while the non-metallic elements are coal, oil and natural gas. A high concentration of mining sites is found in the rocky mountain region of Colorado State than anywhere else within the State. The conception of mining activity in Colorado State is attributed to the first Gold Rush that happened in the 1850s. The magnitude of various methods of mining during the period between 1850 and 2010 were varied, leading to several peak excavations on the different underground resources. Study Area Colorado’s etiology comes from a Spanish word meaning reddish brown. Additionally, the Colorado River in times of flood stages portrays a reddish hue. The state is ranked in the number eight position among the 50 states in the United States of America. It is situated within the rocky mountain sand has a total area of 269,596 square kilometers. The land is covered in an area amounting to 268,311 square kilometers while the rest form inland water bodies. To the north, Colorado is neighbored by Wyoming and Nebraska, to the south by Oklahoma. To the east, it is bordered by Kansas and Nebraska and to the west by Utah. Colorado’s topography is quite unique being the highest state with an average elevation of 2,074 kilometers. Colorado has a total of 54 peaks with Elbert being the highest peak standing at 4,402 kilometers. The eastern portion of Colorado State form part of the Great Plains, a high plateau which rises on the foot of the Rockies. The continental divide is a separating segment that cuts across the Rockies dividing it into Eastern and Western portions. Other prominent features include the Colorado River that traverses from the Rockies to Utah. In climate, Colorado State is typical of less humid sessions accompanied with plenty of sunshine. Summer periods are warm and have cool nights, while winter sessions are snowy and cool. The varied diversity of Colorado may be attributed to the great range land. Five categories of vegetation are common in Colorado including the alpine, plains, montane, foothills and subalpine. Environmental concerns in Colorado State include hazardous disposals, pollution of the air as well as water supply difficulties (Hooke, 2000). Methodology 1. Selection area: the area of interest is Colorado State found in the United States of America. 2. Data collection: data used in this study will range from satellite images obtained through geographic information system. Additionally, mineral data from the mines repositories and county information will be used. The mineral variants will include metallic as well as non-metallic elements. The GIS images will be topographical maps. 3. Data processing: obtained data will be subject to processing through geographic information systems, ESRI ArcGIS and ArcMAP. Results The rapid and drastic increase in the population in Colorado during the period between 1970 and 1980 contributed to a decrease in the water table especially in the Denver region. In terms of demography, Colorado State ranks 22nd in the United States with regard to population. The state had a population of 4,656,177 in the year 2005. In the marking of millennium, the population increased by approximately 31%. Colorado has an extensive transport network because it remains the strategically positioned in the rocky mountain region. The construction of the railway network in the 1870s aided the mining activity. Colorado’s transport network is also manifest with the roads that pass through the mountains. In its history, the first migration to Colorado was as a result of the information on gold strike that happened at the Cherry Creek, which is Denver presently. This event occurred in the year 1858. This marked the beginning of mining activity in Colorado. Mining towns of Tarryall, Blackhawk, Nevadaville, Gold Hill and Colorado City were among the first pioneers in this activity. Another gold strike in 1873, led to the upsurge in migration into the area. After achieving statehood, Colorado saw another development in mining activity. This time round, silver was the underground resource to be discovered in Colorado at Aspen and Leadville. Local dwellers and immigrants were attracted to these sites towns. The construction of smelters, railway networks and refineries began to take centre stage. Additionally, large and extensive oil fields opened in these mining towns. However, this economic upsurge got a blow when the government decided to introduce standard procedure in silver production. Moreover, it is during this period that there was overproduction of silver. Consequently, this led to the closure of mining sites and a massive collapse in the economic activities was evident (Chamley, 2003). The First World War had more implications on the mining industry in Colorado and this period was also marked by depression. However, there was a revival of the mineral production as natural gas drilling proceeded between the 1970s and 1980s. There was a gradual increase in the population at a constant rate of three percent. Economic crisis in the mid 1980s led to a drop in the prices of oils. Subsequently, a majority of the oil fields were closed including other mineral deposits. During the spring of the year 2000, a majority of the population faced the challenges related to open-pit mining of gold. This was highly connected to be a contributing factor in the other problems of industrial pollution. Additionally, it was overcrowding at the Rockies as well as water cut-offs. The open-pit method of mining began as early as 1980 and led to environmental hazards. This method of excavation resulted into gaping cavities that contained toxic substances. Initially termed as the most cost effective way of mining precious metals of gold and silver, the open-pit method led to disastrous cases. Cyanide, which is an essential in mining of these metals leaked and was transported into the streams and rivers. The spill of cyanide in the Alamosa River in the early 1990s was a major blow to the Colorado state (Chamley, 2003). Colorado State is among the top twenty states that have a vibrant mining history. Colorado produces both metals and non-metals all which have large economic values. Among the most underground metals excavated in Colorado include gold, silver and molybdenum, a variant of copper. Non-metals include coal, natural gas and oil which play a vital role in production of power and energy. Rocky Mountain Basin Legend: – state capital – towns that have exploration and production activity or are a center for regional exploration and production activity – basin with significant oil and natural gas resources Colorado Crude Oil Production Summary Updated: Dec 05 2011, 11AM Next Release: January 05 2012, 11AM Seasonally Adjusted: No Report: US Crude Oil Production Source: EIA Category: Commodities Period: Jul 2011 Value Previously: 2.38M Change From Previous: -6.53% Value One Year Ago: 2.40M Change From Year Ago: -7.42% Discussion and conclusion The ore industry in the United States is categorized into five segments. The first segment encompasses the oil and gas extraction segment which produces natural gas and petroleum. These two products are used in fuelling cars and in power industries for machines. Additionally, petroleum is used in manufacturing of drugs, plastics and production artificial fibers. Oil and gas are explored through the collection of rock samples prior to drilling. Subsequent downstream processes are carried out once the discovery has been made. The drilling process involves the making of a vertical hole until the oil or gas is reached. This technique has been continuously used in offshore drilling procedures. Extraction begins soon the gas is reached and this is dependent on natural upward force due to pressure (Chamley, 2003). Coal miming is a vital activity in Colorado in which the product is used in generation of electricity. Underground excavation of coal is not considered the most cost effective method. Tunnels are usually made either vertically, horizontally or in tilted angles. This is followed by making of entry points for miners that are interconnected as passages in many directions. The coal is extracted via room and pillar method. Although it is risky, it does not require a profound reclamation process. However, caution should be taken to prevent contamination of water and collapse of the mine fields. Most of the mining areas are concentrated within the Denver basin, which forms a vital hub of the Rockies mountain region. The Denver basin forms an asymmetrical Front Range basin with a steep flank to the west and a gentle one to the east (Hooke, 2000). In the extraction oil and natural gas in Colorado, there has been an increase in a number of induced seismic activities. In the mining procedure, petroleum is extracted without replacement of fluids. This is because; it has been shown that petroleum mining is counterbalanced with injection of fluids into the drilled holes. There have been a number of earthquakes that have arisen due to the seismic stimulated activity. Metals such as gold, silver and copper exist as ores but are quite distinguishable from other metallic substances. In contrast to coal deposits, metal ores are less common and therefore, they are marked by larger mine fields. Moreover, silver, copper and gold mine fields are located in the extreme environments such as the Rockies mountain region (Zalasiewicz, Williams, Haywood & Ellis 2011). Metal ores are excavated via surface and underground methods. This is dependent on the location of the ore deposit. Metal ores are mined through open-pit technique whereby huge holes are made through application of explosives to blast the rocks. This type of mining was extensively employed in the early years but in the recent past, Colorado environmental bodies have made interventions. Coal production in Colorado State began in 1859 and through the years, the number of counties that were mining coal increased significantly. Presently, there are about eight active coal mining towns in Colorado. During the industrial revolution that was marked by combustion and steam engines, coal remained an important fuel source. During those days, the coal was readily available on the surface of the earth. It is thus correct to assert that coal mining during those times had less impact on the landscape. Coal is not excavated safely beyond depths measuring 3, ooo feet. However, within the Colorado surface, it has been reported that about 129 tons of coal can be mined in these depths. Such regions are exemplified by Craig, nucla, Durango, Paonia and Steamboat springs (Chamley, 2003). In conclusion, it is clear that Colorado State has manifested the phenomenon of anthropocene epic. This is clearly depicted in the changes in the landscape with regard to human behavior as shown by mining. The mining processes have resulted in the deposition of sediments along rivers such Alamosa and Colorado. In some instances, the toxic substances leak and find their way into the streams where they harm aquatic organisms. Additionally, induced seismic effects due to natural gas and oil drilling have led to subsidence and collapse of walls. In rare occasion are earthquakes been reported due to the mining activities. The disposal of chemicals along major streams in Colorado has led to thriving of various life forms in the benthic zones. As a result, the impacts caused by this trend in the last two centuries clearly depict a new geologic era. The causative agent of such happenings can be attributed to human beings who continuously encroach new areas. They are geomorphic agents of bigger impact compared to other natural agents. Through this study, it is apparent that policy makers on environmental issues will mitigate measures that seek to control mining and come up with better mining policies (Clements, Carlisle, Lazorchak & Phillip 2000). References Chamley, H. (2003). Geosciences, Environment and Man. New York: Elsevier. Clements, W., Carlisle, D., Lazorchak, J., & Phillip,C. (2000). Heavy Metal Structure Benthic communities in Colorado Mountain Streams. Ecological Society o fAmerica , 626-638. Hooke, R. (2000). On the History of Humans as Geomorphic Agents. Geological Society of America , 843-846. Syvitski, J., & Kettner, A. (2011). Sediment flux and the Anthropocene. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , 957-975. Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Haywood, A., & Ellis, M. (2011). The Anthropocene: A New Epoch of Geological Time. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , 835-841. Read More