Theoretical Perspective on Secure Attachment - Essay Example

? There are differing many views regarding attachment theory. Sigmund Freud, is one of the founding fathers of modern psychology and also the one whoinstigated the psychoanalytic branch of psychology. His examination of infant attachment development resulted to some interesting theories. Despite the fact that over the years, a number of his theories have by now either been contradicted or disputed, his theories still provide a standard from which modern research can be based on. (Cole, 2009) According to Freud, an infant experiences a “cupboard love” towards its mother. He claims that the infant's primary or original bond is with its mother, which then become the basis for all the forthcoming loves he will be feeling. He also claims that infants only have the desire in his mother's arms simply because the infant has already established that his mother will satisfy and provide for his needs without delay. However, Freud's more significant theory to the development of infant attachment is his drive reduction theory. He used the basic biological drives that are innate in human as the basis for this theory. He explains this by stating that when an infant is driven, an example of which is when he cries, he will then experience pleasure by receiving food resulting to the restoration of balance. (Freud, 1964) Another theory was introduced by Erik Erikson, called the Psycho-Social Theory also known as the Pschodynamic Theory. He was the first to propose that there are different stages of human development that lasts throughout the entire life span. His ideas were a huge influence that led to the study of personality development His theory also accounts for the term "identity crisis." He introduced eight stages to human development and later on added a ninth stage in his book entitled “Life Cycle Completed.” The first two stages pertain to the infant attachment theory, which he called the stage of hope and the stage of will. He claims that on the hope stage, between 0 to 12 months, an infant is trying to make a choice between trust versus mistrust as he tries to weigh whether his primary caregiver is reliable or not. The will stage on the other hand, is the stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt. He claims the will stage as the stage wherein the infant's need to explore the world, which may or may not be hindered by a caregiver's utter neglectfulness or over-protectiveness. (Cole, 2009) Though Freud instigated the infant attachment concept, John Bowlby was known as the father of the attachment theory after making the first and commonly known view on attachment theory. Bowlby believes that there are a number of innate control systems pertaining to behavior are a necessity for surviving as well as procreation. He also believes that attachment begins at infancy, continuing on throughout life. According to Blowby, an infant initially establishes a strong attachment with its primary caregiver and will become the infant's base of exploration. It is innate behavior for an infant to want to explore new things, however, when a child reaches away to explore and then faced with danger or feels scared, its secure protection base will be with the primary caregiver. Bowlby dedicated an extensive research to the concept of infant attachment, which he described as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings" (Bowlby, 1988). He also shared the psychoanalytic view that early experiences in childhood are important influences affecting development and behavior which may be seen later in life. Based on his theory, our early attachment styles are established in childhood through the relationships between infants and primary caregivers. In addition to this, Bowlby was also of the belief that attachment had an evolutionary factor wherein it aids in survival stating that "the propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals is a basic component of human nature" (Bowlby, 1988). Bowlby also categorized different characteristics of attachments and are as follows: Safe Haven: When the child feels threatened or afraid, he/she may return to the caregiver for comfort and soothing. Secure Base: The caregiver is the main provider of a secure and dependable base for the child to explore the world. Proximity Maintenance: The child is seen to be striving to stay near the caregiver, thus keeping the child safe. Separation Distress: When separated from the caregiver, the child will become upset and distressed. Bowlby established the foundation for Ainsworth's attachment theory. Mary Ainsworth contrived an assessment technique called the Strange Situation Classification (SSC) in order to look into how attachments might differ between children. Mary Ainsworth is also of the same belief regarding the control systems, though forged a step further by introducing the concept of Strange Situation, splitting attachments into three types such as secure, avoidant and resistant. The secure type is when an infant looks for protection or comfort from their mother and receiving care in a consistent manner. Typically, a mother is perceived to be loving and affectionate in this infant reaction type. The avoidant type on the otherhand is when an infant has a tendency to either pull away from the mother or ignoring her. The mother in this instance is rated as one who rejects the infant's attachment behavior. Lastly, the resistant type is when an infant has a tendency to cling to the mother, or stay close to her. The mother in this type of infant reaction is perceived to be inconsistent in their care. Attachment commences at infancy and lasts throughout the entire lifetime. A newborn baby has an immediate need for someone to take care of them. This someone may be a parent, a sibling, or a nanny, there will be a bond forged between them regardless of who that someone may turn out to be. Bowlby and Ainsworth share the same belief that this primary caregiver will be a huge influence in shaping up the child's personality and character. (Bretherton, 1992) The primary caregiver, who is usually the mother, forms strong bonds within mere minutes of birth. However, this so-called natural process of attachment may be discontinued, resulting to the long-terms effects on the relationship between the infant and its parents. It is important for new parents and infants to have alone time together right after birth as a means to establishing a strong bond. Having too many people in the room after birth is believed to cause a disruption in the forming of this strong bond between infant and parents. There is an automatic bond between mother and infant, unlike the father who must establish a bond after the child is born. The involvement of the father during the delivery of the child is very important in forging the bond between father and infant. Interactions between mother and child in contrast with father and child are also quite different. When the mother-infant interactions are observed, the mother is perceived to be nurturing and affectionate towards the infant, while the father-infant interactions leans more towards association and play time. Fathers tend to have a more physical relationship with the infant while the mother's relationship is more verbal. It has been said that parent-child bonds are the most important in forming the child's personality. Babies are programmed at birth to be interested in the social world around them. It is assumed that they learn much about the world through their caregivers and therefore their caregivers must have much influence on their personality and their sense of others. Ainsworth performed further investigation by formulating a strange situation procedure. The security of attachment of infants between one to two years of age was observed in order to determine the nature of attachment behaviors and types of attachment. She developed the experimental procedure to observe the assortment of attachment forms shown between caregivers and infants. The experiment was performed by setting up a small room with a one way glass in order to observe the behavior of the infant. The infants were aged between 12 and 18 months comprising of approximately 100 middle class American families and was performed through observations of the behaviors of caregivers and infants in a series of seven three minute episodes which are as follows: Episode 1: Parent and infant alone. Episode 2: Stranger joins parent and infant. Episode 3:Parent leaves infant and stranger alone. Episode 4: Parent returns and stranger leaves. Episode 5: Parent leaves; infant left completely alone. Episode 6: Stranger returns. Episode 7: Parent returns and stranger leaves. This experiment resulted to her identification of the four categories of behaviors which were measured and observed. The first category is the separation anxiety wherein the uneasiness of the infant was exhibited when left by its caregiver. The second category is the infant's willingness to explore. The third category is the stranger anxiety wherein the infant responds to the presence of a stranger and lastly, the reunion behavior exhibited by the infant in which he greets his caregiver. (Bretherton, 1992) Research suggests that failing to form a secure attachment early into the life of an infant can have a negative impact on behavior in later childhood as well as throughout the infant's entire life. Children who had been diagnosed with oppositional-defiant disorder, conduct disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder often displays attachment problems, may be due to early abuse, neglect, or trauma. Clinicians also suggest that children who had been adopted after the age of six months poses a higher risk of problems with attachment. Attachment theory suggests that the quality of care received by an infant from the primary caregiver is very important to the attachment security and insecurity of the child. Attachment theory also led to studies involving the psycho-biological factors that may be affected by these attachments by considering behavior genetics and temperament concepts. In general, temperaments and attachments comprises isolated developmental domains, though aspects of both add to an extent of interpersonal as well as intra-personal developmental outcomes. Some types of temperament may make some individuals sensitized to the stress of unforeseeable circumstances or hostile relationships with caregivers in the early years. With the lack of available and responsive caregivers it seems that some children are particularly open to developing attachment disorders. The two main areas which have been studied are the autonomic responses, particularly the heart rate or respiration, as well as the activities of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. The physiological responses of the infants were measured during the Strange Situation procedure looking at individual deviations in infant temperament and the extent to which attachment acts as a moderator. There is some evidence that the quality of care received by infants plays a significant role in shaping the development of the neurological systems responsible for regulating stress. (Belsky, 1988) References: Bowlby, J. 1969. Attachment and loss: Attachment. New York: Basic. Bretherton, I. 1992. The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Development Psychology. Freud, S. 1964. An outline of psycho-analysis. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 23. London: Hogarth Press. Michael Cole, Sheila Cole, Cynthia Lightfoot. 2009. Development of Children 5th edition. Prentice Hall. Belsky, J., & Nezworski. 1988. Clinical implications of attachment. Hillsdale, New Jersey Erlbaum. Read More