The Theory Behind Intelligence - Essay Example

?The Theory Behind Intelligence The psychological theories behind intelligence have been ever changing in that they are influenced by the philosophical and biological theories of the day. The majority of the debate comes from either the context of people are born with their inherited intellectual abilities or if these abilities manifest themselves as a person matures and learns. In addition, there have been many theorists, such as Gardner, who challenge the traditional view on intelligence. As a result, there have been many studies and tests that have been developed in an attempt to assess the properties of intelligence. Intelligence can be defined in many different ways. Sometimes it is defined as the ability of a person to cognitively manipulate information and problem solve. Many tests, such as the SAT and/or ACT, are designed to capture these cognitive abilities through appraising skills in arithmetic and reading. However, many psychologists and scientists alike argue whether this is a fair assessment of intelligence. One of the more encompassing theories of intelligence comes from Howard Gardner who developed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner proposed that there were seven “types” of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence. This theory into intelligence provided a good explanation for why those that have impaired cognitive abilities could still perform a concerto or create an artistic masterpiece (Shaffer, and Kipp 350-52). Raymond Cattell theorized another important component in which intelligence is commonly defined. He postulated two main components of intelligence: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence. Crystalline intelligence consists of all the knowledge we have complied together in memory and is stored for future use. Fluidic intelligence refers to our problem solving ability and the ability/speed in which we are able to process information. These types of intelligences are inversely proportional, meaning that the older we get the more developed our crystalline intelligence gets and our fluid intelligence decreases (Sigelman, and Rider 227). This can show a trend in both the biological and environmental conditions resulting in intelligence in relation to the aging process. Psychology has been a field of study, which has been influenced by a wide variety of other disciplines such as biology, philosophy, and culture. This is because the field of psychology intertwines ideas from all of these areas, which prompted the questioning of whether the majority of psychological phenomenon was the result of the biologically driven concept or whether it was the result of the environment. Many different aspects of psychology are more driven by these components. Theories dealing in the sub-discipline of neuroscience and clinical disorders often are driven by the biology. Thoughts such as in many counseling theories and health psychology relate directly to the environment in which the individual is interacting with. Therefore, many have taken the middle ground by showing that psychology is influenced by epigenetic principles, which relies on the premise that both biology and environment equally influence the course of a person’s development. The beginning of the nature vs. nurture debate in regards to intelligence started with Francis Galton. He was a cousin to evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin. Galton followed the studies of his cousin and took a strong interest in his theories of natural selection and the involvement of the selection of traits. He also had knowledge in the field of genetics where it was hypothesized that information and hereditary traits were past from parent to offspring through genes. Therefore, Galton hypothesized that no amount of schooling and studying could affect one’s intelligence due to the fact that keys of intelligence are passed through genetics and that this ran in families. Galton was the scientist who coined the term “Nature vs. nurture” in his book, Hereditary Genius, in 1869. In continuing with his research and assumptions, Galton, who was extremely versed in mathematics and statistics, was one of the first people to try and develop tests in order to assess intelligence. Using his knowledge in statistics and understanding the properties of a normalized curve, he postulated that people’s intelligence could be represented on the normal curve with a majority of the population falling within the normal standard deviation and those that were mentally retarded/gifted would be rare and fall in the extremes of the plot (“Sir Francis Galton”). The next side of the argument of the nature vs. nurture debate in regards to intelligence came from the behaviorists. They believed that learning and cognitive abilities came as a result of types of reinforcements as well as from the environment. John Watson conducted one of the most famous and ethically debatable experiments and his experiment dealt with a child nicknamed Little Albert. In this experiment, he was able to condition a phobia for white objects through classical conditioning. This one experiment showed that the intelligence and process of learning was a result of environmental factors, not those of a biological nature (Pierce, and Cheney 14-15). Another experiment, which showed similar results, was through famous behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. Skinner focused on learning theory in regards to intelligence using an animal model, in this case pigeons. He placed the pigeons in a box that would release a pellet of food on a completely random schedule, which was not known by other, and through this Skinner observed the appearance of an unusual behavior. Whatever the pigeon was doing at the time the food pellet dropped, it continued to mimic that behavior in hopes that it would result in more food. This marked the manifestation of what has become known as a superstition (Schultz, and Schultz 347-48). Once again, behaviorism through conditioning was able to show that behaviors and different types of learning, completely unrelated to biological factors, could manifest themselves as a result of interactions and observations with the environment. As a result of the nature vs. nurture debate, there have been many studies and research done to evaluate both sides of the argument. One of the most famous ways of studying has been through twins. This is important because genetically, identical and fraternal twins share almost the exact same copies of DNA. Therefore, this means according to the principles of the nature debate, they would develop the same regardless of conditions. One of the important studies in twin studies, which show the linkage between genes and intelligence, is defined as the g factor, or general cognitive ability. It is shown in that in both sets of twins that are raised together and those that are raised apart retain their similar cognitive abilities. In addition, identical twins have IQ scores, which are more closely correlated than those that are fraternal twins. This is because they develop from the same amniotic sac, meaning they are more genetically similar. Cognitive development also is similar to their parents. Even though this genetic linkage is evident, there is also experimentation which shows that intelligence has links to external factors. Factors such as poor nutrition, parenting styles, and stimulating cognitive activity with schooling have been known to impact IQ scores (Pastorino, and Doyle-Portillo 333-37). The best way of explaining the nature vs. nurture debate in regards to not only intelligence, but also the general field of psychology is that not one component is more responsible in development than the other. While people do have genetic predispositions, which may grant them certain cognitive abilities, the environment and the choices that are made either can influence these abilities to develop or they can be extinguished. This is important especially in understanding how people learn and interact with the environment. By understanding whether intelligence is the result of genetics, the environment or both, it allows systems, like the education system, ways of tailoring programs for students so that they are learning in ways in which are the most efficient and best fit for them. Still, further research is needed to understand the complexities involving how not only genetics play a role in intelligence, but also the environment. Works Cited Pastorino, Ellen, and Susann Doyle-Portillo. What is Psychology?. Belmont, CA: Thomson, 2006. 333-37. Print. Pierce, W, and Carl Cheney. Behavior Analysis and Learning. 3rd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, 2004. 14-15. Print. Shaffer, David, and Katherine Kipp. Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2010. 350-52. Print. Schultz, Duwane, and Sydney Schultz. A History of Modern Psychology. 9th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson, 2008. 347-48. Print. Sigelman, Carol, and Elizabeth Rider. Life-Span Human Development. 5th ed.Belmont, CA: Thomson, 2006. 227. Print. "Sir Francis Galton." Encyclop?dia Britannica. Encyclop?dia Britannica Online. Encyclop?dia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2011. . Read More