Modernism in Architecture in Italy and Scandinavia: 1920-1970 - Essay Example

?Modernism in Architecture in Italy and Scandinavia: 1920-1970 0 Introduction The architecture movement in Scandinavia and Italy between 1920 and 1970 were largely underpinned by political, social and cultural conditions. This is especially true during the earlier part of the 20th century, the interwar periods and the period after World War II. For the Scandinavian countries, there was newfound freedom and prosperity in the early 20th century and on the opposing end, Italy, a fascist government that had close ties with Nazi Germany, had largely restricted architectural movements up to the end of the Second World War. Nevertheless, great architecture emerged from both sides. After the dust of the last war had settled down, architects were busy solving the problem of mass housing to accommodate congesting cities brought about by increasing population and migration of people from the countryside to search for better opportunities in the city. 2.0 The Different Interpretations of Architectural Modernism in Scandinavia and Italy, 1920-1970 2.1 Scandinavia Prior to WWI, Scandinavian architecture can be described as one in a state of unrest. Various art movements had their own passionate advocates, which extended to architecture. Movements like academic historicism, national romanticism, the art noveau and international rationalism all competed at the same time resulting in a cacophony of artistic movements that did not meld into one “absolute standard of taste.” This was to change however, after the war, when Scandinavian architecture followed three distinctive paths: National Romanticism; Neoclassical Interlude, and; International Functionalism.1 After the war, the Neo-Empiricism became popular in Scandinavia. 2.1.1 National Romanticism The National Romanticism movement in Scandinavia flourished when most of its countries were undergoing a social-democratic utopia, after having achieved independence from their colonizers and peace with each other. First, Sweden had just come into a peaceful agreement with Norway in 1905; second, Russia had finally granted Finland its independence in 1917, and; third, Germany had given back to Denmark a territory it took during the war. Moreover, these Scandinavian countries were experiencing newfound prosperity during the period between the first and second world wars. Socially, they were achieving peace and unity under the leadership of enlightened bourgeoisie ensuring labour and economic stability and peace. 2 These conditions inspired the Scandinavian countries to seek new forms of expressions in art, literature, music, interior design and architecture and found it in the National Romanticism movement. It was an extension of the nationalist movement in politics and was underpinned by a desire to find a national identity and be cultural independence. This movement flourished in European countries at a time when there was a particularly strong national feeling manifested architecturally by returning to medieval and peasant models as well as the use of rough materials like stone and brick, which were seen as symbols of national identity. Ordinary dwellings, for example, of farmers were perceived to be more natural and representative of local traditions. The movement was also inspired by ancient myths, which were also seen as emblems of national identity.3 The most renowned Scandinavian architect of the movement was Alvar Aalto.4 Aalto was a Finnish architect whose work was largely influenced by the Nationalist Romanticism and the Doricist sensibility. In Finland, the Nationalist Romanticism was underpinned by the need to veer away from the influence of Romantic Classicism as well as to take advantage of local granite, which was in abundance. 5 Fig 1 Stockholm City Hall (1911-1923)6 An iconic example of architecture constructed in accordance with the National Romanticism standard is the Stockholm City Hall (see Fig 1), also called Stadhuset, by Swedish architect Ragnar Ostberg. It was built between 1911 and 1923 and is located in the island of Kungsholmen in Sweden. It has an outer courtyard, an enclosed hall and a 314-foot tower with a three crown-spired cupola at the apex.7 The Stadhuset is made of dressed stone, rustic timber, and brick,8 said to number 8 million pieces used for the entire building.9 2.1.1 Neoclassical Interlude The Neoclassical Interlude period, which refers to the brief intermediate time of transition from National Romanticism to International Functionalism, was a period of the Romantic Classicism in the Scandinavian architecture history. It was also called Neoclassicism because it was a revival of the earlier Romantic Classicism. The emergence of this period was spurred by German writers Paul Mebes and Vilhelm Wansher, after the demand in 1910 by Carlsberg Brewery for the addition of a spire to Hansen’s Fruekirche.10 Neoclassicism or Romantic Classicism first invaded Denmark among the Scandinavian countries, followed by Sweden although not as distinctive as manifested in such work as Stockholm Law Courts by Carl Westman. The movement was at its dawn when it finally invaded Finland, whose long history as an imperial colony made it more resistant to external influences, and visible in the work of J. S. Siren in Finnish Parliament Building. The first building of Neoclassicism, however, was the Faaborg Museum by Carl Petersen.11 The Faaborg Museum, located at Faaborg, Denmark, emphasised colour over materials and structures. The octagonal hall (see Fig. 2) in the museum, for example, has walls that are plastered, frescoed and polished to hide the structure beneath. They are also painted cobalt blue in interesting contrast to the black statue of Mads Rasmussen in the middle of the hall.12 Fig. 2 Interior of the Faaborg Museum 2.1.2 International Functionalism The emergence of Internationalism Functionalism in the Scandinavian countries was dictated by practicality and necessity. As an architectural movement, Functionalism simply meant buildings that are useful and meet the functions for which they are built and these elements of the movement matched the social demands of the region at that time. Nonetheless, Scandinavian architects managed to introduce into the practicality and utility of functionalist design values of traditional architecture. Amidst the emergence of this movement was the strong resistance against right-wing and left-wing anti-democratic ideas all over Europe. However, the European ideological crisis did not wreak much havoc on smaller countries such as the Scandinavian countries because their social changes were comparatively slower and less extensive. 13 Norway, for example, whose cities’ populations were becoming denser and industrialization advancing, needed mass housing that provided air and light.14 Similarly, Sweden was having housing problems since the end of WWI compounded by its growing industrialization. This compelled the government to provide housing subsidies to its citizens. Denmark likewise established a Government Housing Fund in 1922.15 A solution to these problems was discovered in the 1930 Stockholm Exhibition, which had dwelling for its main topic. This was said to be the point of breakthrough of Functionalism in Scandinavia.16 Fig. 3 Kunstnernes Hus An example of Scandinavian functionalist architecture is the Kunstnernes Hus, an art gallery in Oslo, Norway, designed by Gudolf Blakstad and Herman Munthe-Kaas. Fig. 3 shows the building, which was constructed in 1929-1930, with evident functionalist elements of utility and practicality as can be seen by its row of windows going all around the building for light to enter freely, its medium height, and an exterior that blended well with its surrounding.17 2.1.3 Neo-Empiricism After the war, the younger generation eschewed the established modernism and demanded for “humanization, for attention to psychological actors, for expressive use of materials, integration into the environment, concern for local traditions.”18 In Scandinavia, this movement was called Neo-Empiricism and characterized by small scale housing estates whose environs encouraged people to freely interact, with facilities such as schools, daycare and community centers of the urban housing design of Sven Backstrom.19 Meanwhile, Aalto continued along the line of style he had already developed in the 1930s and ignored the temptation of joining the new movements in architecture around him, pursuing a methodology that according to Tafuri and Dal Co “reveal a drop in potential only in part justifiable by the rather weak methodology behind his stylistic approach.”20 In the 1930s, Aalto’s works revealed shades of modernism grafted onto the natural and social conditions of the North, where national identity had always been an issue while the Russians held the Finns hostage to their influence. His influences, which he later managed to incorporate together were Nordic Classicism and National Romanticism drawing on the idea of myths and vernaculars.21 2.2 Italy In the early days of modernism in architecture, there was an evident support of Italian architects to its fascist government. Hence, there was an attitude in architecture that was anti-democratic and anti-liberal. It was an approach that provided a middle ground between capitalism and communism exemplified by its rejection of modernism and embrace of modernization. Two movements in architecture emerged in Italy after WWI: the Novecento, and; Rationalism. Immediately after the war, Novecento emerged as a movement in Italian architecture that was characterized as moderate avant-garde. On the other hand, Rationalism, which surfaced in 1926, was a rejection of the avant garde style and was, not surprisingly, spearheaded by young students from a Milan university. Its aim was to reach a compromise between logic and rationality, functionality and classicism. One of its figureheads, Giuseppe Terragni, architect of Casa del Fascio, explained its extravagant use of glass facade as an illustration of the Mussolinian concept of fascism that “fascism is a glass house into which all can enter.”22 In 1942, however, the rationalists discarded their position in favor of classicism, after the Abyssinian war evoked feelings of patriotic sentiments that brought the traditionalist to the fore of Italian architecture.23 The defeat of the Fascist government spurred Italian architects, who closely supported the Fascist government, to venture in search of new movements in architecture and Neo-Realism was born. This was likewise engendered by the trades sector that began to congest cities in search of work. Another movement, called Contextualism also emerged with the thesis that architecture must respond to historical and spatial context although retaining its modernism elements.24 In Italy, the Neo-Empiricism movement in Scandinavia after WWII was known as Neo-Realism, except that its focus was on the poor sector of society who was deemed the protagonists of the war. Thus, materials such as wrought iron and Roman-style brick vaults, which were identified with peasant homes, were principally employed in this movement. The style of this movement, like the Scandinavian Neo-Empiricism, was a throwback to the past – to rural purity. Notwithstanding its regressive utopian underpinning, the movement was suitable to post-war Italian social condition, where building trades proliferated. This was the sector constituted by unskilled workers from the rural areas and countryside moving into the cities, which could be utilized only for purely real estate speculation.25 3.0 Conclusion If the Scandinavian and Italian movements in architecture are to be made the basis, it seems that movements are often, if not all the time, underpinned by a political, social or cultural disruption. Such disruption must be strong enough to motivate principal actors of the art to search for new designs and styles that would be appropriate for the times either as an expression of their reaction or to accommodate the needs of the time. This was illustrated by the political and economic freedom that inspired the Scandinavian countries to turn to National Romanticism or Italy to embrace Neo-Realism to accommodate the growing number of people in cities owing to rise in population and migration of workers to urban centers. 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