Chief Characteristics of the Three Artichokes - Essay Example

? TABLE OF CONTENT I.INTRODUCTION 5 II.HISTORICAL SURVEY 6 A.Cynara 6 B.Helianthus tuberosus 7 C.Stachys affinis 7 III.MORPHOLOGY 7 A.Cynara 7 B.Helianthus tuberosus 8 C.Stachys affinis 9 IV.SYSTEMATICS 11 V.PHYLOGENY 16 A.Cynara 16 B.Helianthus tuberosus 17 C.Stachys affinis 17 VI.ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 17 A.Cynara 17 B.Helianthus tuberosus 19 C.Stachys affinis 20 VII.PHARMACOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE 20 A.Cynara 20 b.Antioxidant Activities 24 c.Cholesterol Biosynthesis Inhibition 24 d.Cardioprotection 25 e.Hepatoprotective and Choleretic 25 f.Dyspepsia 26 g.Anti HIV 26 h.Anticancer 27 B.Helianthus tuberosus 27 A.Stachys affinis 27 Conclusion: 27 REFERENCES 30 I. INTRODUCTION 5 II. HISTORICAL SURVEY 6 A. Cynara 6 B. Helianthus tuberosus 7 C. Stachys affinis 7 III. MORPHOLOGY 7 A. Cynara 7 B. Helianthus tuberosus 9 C. Stachys affinis 10 IV. SYSTEMATICS 11 V. PHYLOGENY 14 A. Cynara 14 B. Helianthus tuberosus 15 C. Stachys affinis 15 VI. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 15 A. Cynara 15 B. Helianthus tuberosus 17 C. Stachys affinis 18 VII. PHARMACOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE 18 A. Cynara 18 a. Antimicrobial Activities 21 b. Antioxidant Activities 22 c. Cholesterol Biosynthesis Inhibition 22 d. Cardioprotection 23 e. Hepatoprotective and Choleretic 23 f. Dyspepsia 24 g. Anti HIV 24 h. Anticancer 25 B. Helianthus tuberosus 25 A. Stachys affinis 25 Conclusion: 25 REFERENCES 28 TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1: Globe Artichoke Flower 8 Figure 2: Globe Artichoke Thistle 8 Figure 3: Jerusalem Artichoke Plant 9 Figure 4: Jerusalem Artichoke Tubers 9 Figure 5: Chinese Artichoke Plant 10 Figure 6: Chinese Artichoke Tubers 10 Figure 7: Lineage of Cynara 14 Figure 8: Lineage of Helianthus tuberosus 15 Figure 9: Lineage of Stachys affinis 16 Figure 10: Immature Floral Head of Globe Artichoke 18 Figure 11: The three routes in phenylpropanoid metabolism (1, 2 and 3) proposed for Chlorogenic acid (CGA) synthesis (Camino, 2007) 21 ARTICHOKES I. INTRODUCTION Common names, in contrast to scientific names approved by the binomial nomenclature lead to grave confusion in the identification and study of living organisms. A common name indiscreetly applied to varied plants is artichoke. The name artichoke refers to three groups of taxonomically distinct plants; the globe artichoke (Cynara), Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) and the Chinese artichoke (Stachys affinis). While in the latter two the edible part is the tuber, in the former the floral bud is edible. Accordingly the word artichoke also refers to the edible bud of the globe artichoke as well as the edible tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke and the Chinese artichoke. A comparative account of the three plants is presented in table 1. When unspecified the term artichoke refers to globe artichoke or Cynara, a genera of the family Asteraceae that is characterized by the presence of an inflorescence or floral head. Cynara, also known as ‘thistles’ due to the presence of leaves with sharp prickly margins comprises of ten species, all thistle like perennial plants. Table 1: Chief Characteristics of the Three Artichokes Globe artichoke Jerusalem artichoke Chinese artichoke Scientific nomenclature Cynara Helianthus tuberosus L. Stachys affinis Bunge Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Labiatae (Lamiaceae) Edible part Floral bud Tuber Tuber Habitat Light, warm soil with sunny edges Rich and damp areas Wet and submersed areas Distribution Mediterranean basin Eastern North America E. Asia- China, Japan Medicinal use Anticholesterolemic, antirheumatic, cholagogue, digestive, diuretic, hypoglycaemic, lithonotripic Aperient. Aphrodisiac, diuretic, stimachic, tonic Anodyne II. HISTORICAL SURVEY A. Cynara Whether Cynara was known to ancient civilization cannot be ascertained. Though artichoke finds mention in ancient literatures, but the varied names used and the equally diverse descriptions have lead different researchers to interpret the ancient authors in different ways. While DeCandolle suggests that cultivated globe artichoke was unknown to ancient world, Foury on the basis of writings of Pliny and Columella, concluded that the cultivation of artichoke started around 1st century BC. The first records of cultivation of artichoke are obtained from the reports of trading of globe artichokes from Sicily to Florence in the beginning of 15th century. The Arabs played a significant role in the spread of globe artichoke, so that many of the common names of artichoke such as ‘carciofo’, ‘alcachofa’ etc; are derived from the Arabic ‘al harshuff’. Cultivated cardoons, another species of Cynara (C. cardunculus) appears in Spanish and Italian paintings dated to the beginning of 17th century, suggesting its cultivation started much later in the western Mediterranean region (Sonnante et al. 2007). B. Helianthus tuberosus Also known as Topinambur, it has been brought to Europe in early 16th century from the new world, the species has been widely cultivated for its tubers (Mack and Lonsdale, 2001). C. Stachys affinis Endemic to East Asian region (Filatenko et al., 2001) Chinese artichoke has been widely cultivated in France since its introduction in late 19th century (Daunay et al., 2007). III. MORPHOLOGY A. Cynara C. cardunculus is characterized by a dense cluster of florets forming the floral head or inflorescence, as the other genera of Asteraceae. The florets are purple in colour (figure 1). They are commonly known as thistles due to sharp prickle like margins of their leaves, the prickles are also present on entire stem and leaf surface as shown in figure 2 (Bonasia et al., 2010). The edible parts are immature inflorescence or head or capitula which is consumed both cooked and raw. The purple blue flowers in the capitulum are enveloped by leathery green bracts. The largest calitula is borne on the central stem, while the lateral stems bear the smaller ones (Lanteri and Portis, 2008). Figure 1: Globe Artichoke Flower Figure 2: Globe Artichoke Thistle B. Helianthus tuberosus Helianthus tuberosus is a hardy herbaceous plant growing up to 1.5 to 3 metres in height (figure 3) with multiple tubers creamy white or reddish pink on surface and white or yellowish white pulp. The tubers are 3-5 cm in diameter with an earthy odour and aromatic taste (figure 4) (Branca and Malfa, 2008). The capitulum is yellow in colour with 10-20 ray florets. Figure 3: Jerusalem Artichoke Plant Figure 4: Jerusalem Artichoke Tubers C. Stachys affinis Stachys affinis is an herbaceous perennial plant, growing up to 45 cms with dark green leaves and spikes with pink flowers (figure 5). They produce small, white tubers less than 5cm in length (figure 6) (Pistrick, 2006). Figure 5: Chinese Artichoke Plant Figure 6: Chinese Artichoke Tubers IV. SYSTEMATICS The lineage of genera Cynara is given in figure. The genera comprises of ten known species namely C. alba, C. algarbiensis, C. auranitica, C. baetica, C. cardunculus (syn C. scolymus), C. cornigera, C. cyrenaica C. humilis, C. hystrix, and C. syriaca. Figure 7: Lineage of Cynara Figure 8: Lineage of Helianthus tuberosus Figure 9: Lineage of Stachys affinis V. PHYLOGENY A. Cynara Studies to establish the ancestry and evolution of Cynara based on rDNA spacer sequence analysis by Robba and colleagues (2005), confirmed that the cultivated artichoke (C. cardunculus var. scolymus L.), leafy cardoon [var. altilis DC] and wild cardoon [var. sylvestris (Lamk) Fiori] are different varieties of a single species, fully cross compatible with each other. It has been reported that wild cardoon is ancestor of the rest two varieties. Besides it also established the monophyly of Cynara cardunculus sensu lato with C. humilis and C. tournefortii, while C. baetica is non-monophylectic. B. Helianthus tuberosus Phylogenetic studies of Helianthus tuberosus using the 18S-26S ribosomal DNA external transcribed spacer (ETS) revealed a complex pattern of evolution of this polyploid species. Earlier reports of this species being an auto-allopolyploid with two copies of an identical genome along with one copy of genome of H. annus; was proved untrue, since the study could not find H. annus ETS type. However whether the evolution of H. tuberosus occurred along with other polyploid species H, resinosus and H. pauciflorus, or independently remains to be established (Timme et al., 2007). C. Stachys affinis Stachys is one of the biggest genera of Lamiaceae with about 300 to 450 species, however the phylogeny of the species S. affinis is not yet resolved (Lindqvist and Albert, 2002). VI. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE A. Cynara All organs of C. cardunculus have been established to have economic significance. The plant has ornamental value in garden. Roots and rhizomes of the plant are brewed or used as infusion. The leaves have multiple uses in form of alcoholic and non alcoholic beverages, protein source for biscuit and beverages, and milk coagulant. The dehydrated flour from leaves is used as cattle feed additive and the midribs is used as an ingredient for various dishes (Lanteri and Portis, 2008). Immature floral heads and receptacles form an ingredient of more then 1000 dishes and are also eaten raw (figure 10) (Bianco, 2006). The receptacle is rich source of inulin, phenolics, fibers and minerals. Thus globe artichoke is one of the major crops with remarkable contribution to the European agricultural productivity. The annual production of globe artichoke in Europe is 750 Mt which is more than 60% of worldwide production. The leaders in production of globe artichoke are Italy, Spain and France (FAO, 2007). The nutritional components of globe artichoke are listed in table 2. Figure 10: Immature Floral Head of Globe Artichoke Table 2: Nutritional content of Globe Artichoke B. Helianthus tuberosus Helianthus tuberosus tubers are commonly eaten raw or cooked as various dishes and also used as animal feed. The tubers store carbohydrates in form of inulin and are one of the richest sources of this carbohydrate, and therefore; are commonly used for fructose production and as diet components for individuals suffering from diabetes and obesity. However, since the inulin cannot be digested by the human digestive system, consumption of Jerusalem artichoke may cause flatulence and even gastric pain. Reports of use of tubers for production of alcohols and syrup are also available (Branca and Malfa, 2008). The plant is also being explored as a possible source of biofuels. Cheng and associates reported production of biodiesel from Jerusalem artichoke hydrolysates by transesterification using heterotrophic microalgae Chlorella protothecoides (Cheng et al., 2009). C. Stachys affinis Tubers of Chinese artichoke are eaten raw, as salads or are eaten cooked and savoured for their mild flavor and easy digestion. They are of special significant in famine when everything else fails to grow (pfaf). VII. PHARMACOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE A. Cynara Various species of Cynara have long been used in folk medicine, probably because of its high composition of hydroxycinnamic acid and flavonoids. An assessment of levels of these compounds in various parts of the plant revealed presence of higher levels in receptacles compared to outer bracts where it was almost absent (Pandino et al., 2011a). Leaf abstracts have been known to provide relief in liver problems. Pharmalogical analysis has established the broad medicinal significance of artichoke leaf extracts and their potential to act as anticarcinogenic, anti HIV, hepatoprotective, antioxidative, anti bacterial, bile expelling, urinative, activities as well as the ability to inhibit LDL oxidation and cholesterol synthesis (Lattanzio et al., 2009). No single compound can be considered to be responsible for these medicinal properties. The therapeutic potential of artichoke is ascribed to synergistic effects of many of the active compounds recognized in the plant extracts namely polyphenols (PPs) such as mono- and dicaffeoylquinic acids, flavonoids (luteolin and its 7-O-glycoside) (Lattanzio et al., 2009). Figure 11: The three routes in phenylpropanoid metabolism (1, 2 and 3) proposed for Chlorogenic acid (CGA) synthesis (Camino, 2007) Polyphenols (PPs) are biologically active compounds with significant antioxidative and antibacterial activity present in C cardunculus at a concentration reaching up to 2%. The main phenolic compounds present in C. cardunculus are caffeoylquinin acids, along with ‘Cimiciusa di Mazzarino’ present in var. scolymus (Pandino et al., 2011b). Cardoon leaves have a high concentration of syringic and trans-cinnamic acids (Falleh et al., 2008). The levels and proportions of the various PPs vary with environmental conditions, tissues, and plant developmental stage. Certain biotic and abiotic factors such as trauma, stress, pathogen attack and UV-radiations (specifically UV-C radiations) too have the potential to induce PPs metabolism. The two major PPs present in globe artichoke are dicaffeoylquinic acids (DCQ) and chlorogenic acid (CGA). The latter is considered to be a precursor of DCQ because of the structural similarity of the two compounds, even though no evidence is as yet available (Camino et al., 2009). Figure 11 provides a flow chart of three major pathways of synthesis of CGA. The level of flavonoids in C. cardunculus ranges from 0.1-1%. The major flavonoids found in globe artichoke are luteolin derivatives, high levels of which are detected in its leaves. Several glycoside derivatives of the flavones such as 7-Oglucoside, 7-O-rutinoside, 7, 4’-di-O-glucoside, 3’-O-glucoside and 4’-O-glucoside have also been reported from the plant species. The leaves of wild as well as cultivated cardoons are also rich in apigenin derivatives (Pandino et al., 2010). Inulin a natural fiber is present in root which is known to favour the growth of beneficial bacteria of human gut (Camino et al., 2007). C. cardunculus contains a number of volatile oils such as sesquiterpenes ?-selinene, caryophyllene, eugenol, phenylacetaldehyde, decanal, etc. Other constituents detected in C. cardunculus extracts include phytosterols such as taraxasterol, ?- taraxasterol; tannins, glycolic and glyceric acids, enzymes such as peroxidases, cynaropicrin, and some sesquiterpene lactones namely grosheimin, cynarotriol (Obtrandon, 2010). The major pharmacological activities exhibited by extracts of globe artichoke plants from its specific parts are as follows: a. Antimicrobial Activities Leaf extracts of globe artichoke have been shown to exhibit significant antimicrobial activities and at least eight phenolic compounds have been isolated from the n- butanol soluble fraction of the leaf extract. The PPs isolated are chlorogenic acid, cynarin, 3, 5-di-O- caffeoylquinic acid, 4, 5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, and four flavonoids isolated are luteolin-7-rutinoside, cynaroside, apigenin-7-rutinoside, and apigenin 7-O- ?-D-glucopyranoside. All of these compounds were demonstrated to be active against a large number of microorganisms including bacteria, yeasts and molds with chlorogenic acid, cynarin, luteolin-7-rutinoside, and cynaroside exhibiting comparatively higher antimicrobial activity. Moreover they were comparatively more efficient against fungi than bacteria with minimum inhibitory concentrations in the range of 50-200 ?g/mL (Zhu et al., 2004). In another study extracts obtained from Cynara cardoon L. fresh involucral bracts were demonstrated to exhibit antimicrobial activity equivalent to common antibiotics. The antimicrobial activity was tested against a range of bacteria and fungi including Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium ochrochloron, Penicillium funiculosum, Trichoderma viride, Fusarium tricinctum and Alternaria alternate (Falleh et al., 2008). b. Antioxidant Activities Polyphenols have the ability to act as antioxidants as a consequence of their H-donating and metal chelating characteristic. Since C cardunculus is rich in polyphenols it is expected to exhibit antioxidant activity. Aqueous methanol extracts of artichoke leaf and head extracts were prepared and tested for their antioxidant properties. Of the seven active PPs isolated, apigenin-7-rutinoside and narirutin were present exclusively in heads. All these compounds were found to exhibit significant antioxidant activity (Wang et al., 2003). In another study, artichoke extracts isolated from industrial byproducts were found to exhibit significant free radical scavenging activity and were also able to inhibit lipid peroxidation and thus these extracts from industrial byproducts can be used as health promoting food additives (Llorach et al., 2002). c. Cholesterol Biosynthesis Inhibition Many reports are available for the efficacy of globe artichoke as hypolipidaemic, hypocholesterolaemic and choleretic agent. Globe artichoke leaf extracts have been demonstrated inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis when administered to patients with hyperlipoproteinaemis. 143 patients with an initial total cholesterol level of >7.3mmol/L received 1800mg of leaf extracts in two doses for a period of six weeks. By the end of the study period the mean total cholesterol level in study group decreased by 18.5%, i.e. to 6.31mmol/L (Englisch et al., 2000). In another study conducted on rats with hypercholesteromic conditions, artichoke leaf extract was administered for a period of 2 weeks. As a consequence serum triglyceride, serum cholesterol levels and the ratio of cholesterol to HDL- cholesterol was found to decrease. Moreover serum monoaldehyde and diene conjugate levels also declined and the plasma antioxidant activity increased (Kusku-Kiraz, et al., 2010). The major constituent involved in inhibition of cholesterol synthesis has been reported to be luteolin. The possible mechanism of inhibition has been speculated to be indirect inhibition of the enzyme hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMG-CoA) (Obtrandon, 2010). d. Cardioprotection Cardiovascular complications involve hydrolysis of gelatin and collages which form an integral component of extracellular matrix. The enzymes responsible for this event are metalloproteinases (MMPs) namely MMP-2, MMp-9; and Zinc dependent endopeptidases. A study conducted on the role of C. cardunculus (wild globe artichoke) extract in human diet revealed that it was able to inhibit secretion of MMP-5 and gelatinolytic activity of secreted MMP-9. The main ingredients of the extract were luteolin, apigenin and caffeic acid (Bellosta et al., 2008). e. Hepatoprotective and Choleretic Several studies have reported the hepatoprotective abilities of globe artichoke extracts both in vivo and in vitro. Cynarin has been found to be the most and probably the only hepatoprotective agent, the second possible agent being caffeic acid (8). Success rate of survival as a consequence of artichoke extract pretreatment was estimated in a study conducted on rats suffering from CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress. It was found that while all the rats died within 24hrs of CCl4 injection, in the rats pretreated with artichoke extracts the levels of plasma transaminase activity was considerably lower and hepatic necrosis too was much lesser (Mehmetcik et al., 2008). The study provided evidence for the affectivity of artichoke extracts in preventing hepatotoxicity resulting as a consequence of oxiadative stress. In another study artichoke extracts were compared with that of rosemary, turmeric, and dandelion for their antiproliferative, protective and antioxidant effects. It was found that while all extracts inhibited proliferation of HepG2 cells in a dose dependent manner, the efficiency for the same is maximum for turmeric followed by artichoke. The extract was also effective in reducing PGE2 levels thereby controlling oxidative stress (Menghini et al., 2010). Higher concentrations of monocaffeoylquinic acids were reported to be more effective choleretic agents compared to dicaffeylquinic acids (Obtrandon, 2010). f. Dyspepsia A study of the effect of Cinarepa (a commercial mixture of dry extracts of artichoke leaf containing 15% CA along with extracts of dandelion, rosemary and turmeric; was reported to effectively reduce dyspepsia symptoms with significant effects at both 30 day and 60 day follow ups with up to 50% reduction in symptoms in 38% patients at 30 days follow up and in 79% patients at 60 day follow up (Sannia, 2010). g. Anti HIV PPs present in the extract of globe artichoke namely DCQs have been reported to be effective against HIV integrase in vitro, thus inhibiting HIV replication. Targeting a site distinct from that of current therapeutic agent, DCQs have been proposed as a new method of HIV treatment that needs to be further studied. Although the mechanism of inhibition of HIV replication is not yet understood, yet available data are indicative of interruption at HIV integration level (McDougall et al., 1998). h. Anticancer Methanol extract of artichoke flowers was reported to exhibit anti tumour activity in an in vivo trial in mice. The active portion of the extract was found to contain four triterpene alcohols and their acetates which were found to exhibit significant anti inflammatory effect (Yasukawa et al., 2010). B. Helianthus tuberosus Jerusalem artichoke has traditionally been used as a diuretic, antidiabetic and choleritic. A study to assess the antimicrobial activity of Jerusalem artichoke exhibited its effectively in inhibiting growth of some microbes namely Pseudomonas, Bacillus subtilis, Arthrobacter, and Cerevisiae (Gengaihi et al., 2009). A. Stachys affinis Chinese artichoke is known to have minor medicinal uses specifically as anodyne and against common cold (pfaf). Conclusion: The dependence of animal life directly or indirectly on plants is undoubted. While carbon dioxide and food are the major material facilitated by the plants indispensable to human and other animals, there are many other products which are produced by the plants and are used by man as important components of medicines, food additives, cosmetics, fertilizers, insecticides and flavor enhancers. Most of these products are secondary metabolites which have been used since ages by man for different purposes. Cyanra cardunculus (Globe artichokes) has been traditionally used as food, ingredient to numerous delicacies as well as eaten raw. The high polyphenol content of the plant renders it useful as a medicinal herb. Utilized since ages for liver ailments, its potential is still being explored. Modern day utilization of Globe artichokes involves such varied uses as ornamental garden plant to alcoholic drinks, milk coagulant and animal feed additives. Medicinal uses of the plant make it capable of dealing with wide varieties of ailments besides those related to liver, including cancer, hypolipidaemia, hypocholesterolaemia, cardiac troubles, and even AIDS. The plant extract has been found to be capable of controlling wide variety of microorganisms and therefore can also act as an antibiotic. Though the mechanism of action and the exact secondary metabolite responsible for each of these activities has not be identified yet, the efficiency of the plethora of secondary metabolites in providing cure for various ailments is remarkable. The wild variety of the plant, cardoon is also being explored as a biofuel. The ease of cultivation and the high yield of the plant make it suitable for testing as a fuel for energy production. The importance of globe artichoke though known for centuries is now being fully appreciated. Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke) too has an old history of cultivation, the tubers eaten raw as well as cooked as an important ingredient of many dishes. The tuber resembles potato but has lower nutritive value and sweeter taste. However the sweet taste of Jerusalem artichoke tubers is due to presence of inulin and similar fructooligosaccharides. Hence the tubers have a nutritive value as well as health benefits, especially for individuals with problems of obesity or diabetes. The plant has a number of industrial uses as well such as in ethanol production due to its high biomass and in production of fructose syrups due to its inulin content. Because of its ease of cultivation, high yield and resistance to pathogenic infestations, this plant too is being explored as a biofuel. Stachys offinis (Chinese artichoke), though not as useful as the other two artichokes discussed above is still a source of edible tubers relished in Asian countries. In China they are used for pickling, in Japan used for preparing side dishes and in France relished as salads and are also ingredients to wide number of dishes. The medicinal uses of Chinese artichoke are few and less documented. REFERENCES 1. Bellosta, S., Bogani, P., Canavesi, M., Galli, C., & Visioli, F. 2008. Mediterranean diet and cardioprotection: wild artichoke inhibits metalloproteinase 9. Molecular nutrition and food research , 52 (10), pp. 1147-52. 2. Bianco, V. V. 2006. Present and prospect of utilization of fresh and processed artichoke. Acta Hort (ISHS) , 730, pp. 23-37. 3. Bonasia, A., Conversa, G., Lazzizera, C., Gambarcorta, G., & Elia, A. 2010. Morphological and quantitative characterisation of globe artichoke head from new seed propogated cultivars. Journal of the science of food and agriculture , 90 (15), pp. 2689-93. 4. Branca, F., & La Malfa, G. 2008. Traditional vegetables of Sicily. Chronica Horticulturae , 48 (1), pp. 20-25. 5. Camino, C., Hehn, A., Moglia, A., Menin, B., Bourgaud, F., Lanteri, S., et al. 2009. The isolation and mapping of a novel hydroxycinnamoyltransferase in the globe artchoke chlorogenic acid pathway. BMC Plant Biology , 9 (30). 6. Camino, C., Lanteri, S., Portis, E. et al. 2007. Isolation and characterization of cDNA coding a hydroxycinnamoyltransferase involved in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in Cynara cardunculus L. BMC Plant Biology , 7 (14). 7. Cheng, Y., Zhou, W., Gao, C., Lan, K., Gao, Y., & Wu, Q. 2009. Biodiesel production from Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) tuber by heterotrophic microalgae Chlorella protothecoides. Journal of chemical technology and biotechnology , 84 (5), pp. 777-81. 8. Daunay, M., Boccon-Gibod, J., Cadic, A., & Mazier, M. 2007. Biotechnology and agriculture. Chronica Horticulturae , 47 (1), pp. 6-12. 9. El Gengaihi, S. A., Aboul Enein, A. M., Abou Elalla, F. M., & Abou Baker, D. H. 2009. Molecular charcterization and antimicrobial activities of chickory and Jerusalem artichoke plants. International journal of academic research , 1 (2), pp. 66-72. 10. Englisch 2000. Efficacy of artichoke dry extract in patients with hyperlipoproteinemia. Arzneim Forsch Drug Res , 50, pp. 260-65. 11. Falleh, H., Ksouri, R., Chaieb, K. et al. 2008. Phenolic composition of Cynara cardunculus L. organs and their biological activities. Comptes Rendus Biologies , 331 (5), pp. 372-9. 12. FAO, 2007, www.faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx 13. Filatenko, A. A., Pistrick, K., Knupffer, H., & Hammer, K. 2001. E. N. Sinskaya's inventory of plant taxa in the basic areas of the historical development of the flora of cultivated plants. Rudolf Mansfeld and Plant Genetic Resources. pp. 222-231. Gatersleben: ZADI, Bonn. 14. Kukic, J; Popovic, V; Petrovic, S. et al. 2008. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Cyanra cardunculus extracts. Food Chemistry, 107(2), pp.861-68. 15. Kusku-Kiraz, Z., Mehmetcik, G., Dogru, -A. S., & Uysal, M. 2010. Artichoke leaf extract reduces oxidative stress and lipoprotein dyshomeostasis in rats fed on high cholesterol diet. Phytotherapy research , 24 (4), pp. 565-70. 16. Lanteri, S., & Portis, E. 2008. Globe artichoke and Cardoon. Handbook of plant breeding, pp. 49-74. 17. Lattanzio, V., Kroon, P. A., Linsalata, V., & Cardinali, A. 2009. Globe Artichoke: A functional food and source of neutraceutical ingredients. Journal of functional foods , 1 (2), pp. 131-44. 18. Lindqvist, C., & Albert, V. A. 2002. Origin of the Hawaiian endemic mints within North American Stachys (Lamiaceae). American Journal of Botany , 89 (10), pp. 1709-24. 19. Llorach, R., Espin, J. C., Tomas-Barberan, F. A., & Ferreres, F. 2002. Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) Byproducts as a potential source of health-promoting antioxidant phenolics. Journal agriculture food Chemistry , 50 (12), pp. 3458-64. 20. Mack, R. N., & Lonsdale, W. M. 2001. Humans as global plant dispersers: getting more than we bargained for. BioScience , 51 (2), pp. 95-102. 21. McDougall, B., King, P. J., & Wu, B. W. 1998. Dicaffeoylquinic and dicaffeoyltartaric acids are selective inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 integrase. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy , 42 (1), pp. 140-6. 22. Mehmetcik, G., Ozdemirler, G., Kocak-Toker, N., Cevikbas, U., & Uysal, M. 2008. Effect of pretreatment with artichoke extract on carbon tetracholride induced liver injury and oxidative stress. Exp Toxiclo Pathol , 60 (6), pp. 475-80. 23. Menghini, L., Genovese, S., Epifano, F., Ferrante, C., & Leporini, L. 2010. Antiproliferative, protective and antioxidative effects of artichoke, dandelion, turmeric and rosemary extracts and their formulation. Int J Innunopathol Pharmacol , 23 (2), pp. 601-10. 24. obtrandon.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/cynara-scolymus-artichoke.pdf 25. Pandino, G., Lombardo, S., Mauromicale, G., & Williamson, G. 2011a. Profile of polyphenols and phenolic acids in the bracts and receptacles of globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus) germplasm. Journal of food composition anaysis , 24 (2), pp. 148-53. 26. Pandino, G., Lombardo, S., Mauromicale, G., & Williamson, G. 2011b. Phenolic acids and flavonoids in leaf and floral stem of cultivated and wild Cynara cardunculus L. genotypes. Food Chemistry , 126 (2), pp. 417-22. 27. pfaf. (n.d.). Stachys affinis Bunge. Retrieved Mar 2011, from plant for a future database: http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx/LatinName=Stachysaffinis 28. Pistrick, K. 2006. Overview of cultivated plant species in the family Labiatae. ISHS Acta Horticulturae , 723, pp. 133-142. 29. Robba, L., Carine, M. A., Russel, S. J., & Raimondo, F. M. 2005. The monophyly and evolution of Cynara L. (Asteraceae) sensu lato: evidence from internal transcribed spacer region of nrDNA. Plant Systematics and evolution , 253 (1-4), pp. 3-64. 30. Sannia, A. 2010. Phytotherapy with a mixture of dry extracts with hepatoprotective effects containing artichoke leaves in the management of functional dyspepesia symptoms. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol , 56 (2), pp. 93-9. 31. Sonnante, G., Pignone, D., & Hammer, K. 2007. The domestication of artichoke and cardoon: from roman times to genomic age. Annals of Botany , 100, pp. 1095-1100. 32. Timme, R. E., Simpson, B. B., & Linder, R. 2007. High-resolution phylogeny for Helianthus (Asteraceae) using the 18S-36S ribosomal DNA external transcribed spacer. American Journal of Botany , 94 (11), pp. 1837-52. 33. Wang, M., Simon, J., Aviles, I. F., & Zheng, Q. T. 2003. Analysis of antioxidant phenolic compounds in artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.). Journal agriculture food Chemistry , 51 (3), pp. 601-8. 34. Yasukawa, K., Matsubara, H., & Sano, Y., 2010. Inhibitory effect of flowers of artichoke (Cynara cardunculus) on TPA-induced inflammation and tumor promotion in two stage carcinogenesis in mouse skin. J nat med , 64 (3), pp. 388-91. 35. Zhu, X., Zhang, H., & Lo, R. 2004. Phenolic compounds from the leaf extracts of artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) and their antimicrobial activities. Journal of Agricultural food chemistry , 52 (24), pp. 7272-78. Read More