Islam and the Muslim World - Essay Example

?Islam and the Muslim World The earliest conceptions of the Muslim religion and culture are surprisingly a combination of other cultures and religions, to include Christianity Judaism, and even the pagan religions. In stark contrast to the labels being thrown at Islam today, Muslims have been very tolerant of other religions and cultures (Kreis, 2006). You may seem surprised of this tolerance, especially when the religion-related terrorist attacks in the U.S. and in other non-Islamic countries seem to indicate a lack of tolerance for other religions. However, what we do see till this very day is that Islam has learned to protect itself and its essence as a religion and a belief; not allowing other beliefs to dictate upon it. Islamic Beginnings In its initial years, Islam has been considered a nomadic culture until it found a home in the Arab territories. Islam’s most famous prophet is someone you most likely have heard of--Muhammad or Mohammed. Muhammad was known to have united the Muslim religion and culture. He is considered their prophet because it is said that the teachings of Allah were revealed to him by an angel. These teachings are now present in the Muslim bible called the Qur’an (Khanbagi, 2006). When Muhammad, Islam’s holy man, passed away, various problems of succession arose. The succeeding years of the Muslim civilization brought on more conquered lands. One after another, we have seen other cultures and territories fall to the Muslims, including the Byzantines, Syria, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, and Spain. But, as the Muslims were conquering these territories, the fighting within their group got worse. Many of us have heard about Islam through the latest media coverage; and if so, you may have heard of the two infamous groups, the Sunis and the Shiites. These two groups were borne out of the infighting Muslims, due to differing ideas on governance. The Shiites followed Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, and the Sunis followed the Ummayads, who were the first Muslim dynasty to rule the Arab Kingdom (Jelen & Wilcox, 2002). Islam’s Golden Years Of course, during the older rule of Islam, it was not all about fighting. There was a golden period; a time when the Arabic, Byzantine, Persian, and Indian cultures were integrated with one another. They refer to it as a golden age because learning reached its peak through Muslim associations with the Greeks and the Byzantines. The interplay became more than what one would expect—a predatory or conqueror-slave type of interaction. The relationship became as simple as a teacher and a student (Kreis, 2006). As the conquered groups learned about Islam, Islam learned from the conquered. Knowledge became alive and in the process, science and philosophy was also preserved. Allah taught these Muslims to seek out knowledge and truth and to protect it (Kreis, 2006). And, this is what they did as they allowed knowledge to become a major part of their life and their daily activities. African Beginnings Most of the southern part of the African continent has been occupied by tribes known as Khoisan (Hupston, 2009). The Khoisan language is characterized by clicking sounds, very similar to that of the Bushman. From the Khoisan tribes, more divisions are later seen: the San (Bushmen) and the KhoiKhoi or Hottentots (History World, n.d). The Pygmies, which includes the Bambuti, Batwa, Bayaka and Bagyelil divisions are scattered over a huge area in central and western Africa, to include the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Congo (Brazzaville), Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda (The Africa Guide, 1996). The Pygmies were known to occupy the tropical forests of central Africa, but it was the Negroes which dominated sub-Saharan Africa. Primeval Tribes The Negroes, were an African tribe who found their home in the so-called Negro systems, in western and central Sudan, Upper Guinea, and the Upper Nile regions. They spoke the Bantu language, a language which dominated much of Africa in later years. It is composed of about 500 languages and is spoken in a large area of Africa. Twelve of these languages are spoken by about five million people as a mother tongue and 30 millions African people as a second language. This language is vital to the commerce and social relations of the different African tribes. Today, we see the growth of more tribes in Africa. In fact, Africa is dominated by tribes. Just to clarify, a tribe consists of families and communities. One, not-so-ancient tribe of Africa is the Zulus. The Zulus are believed to have originated from the Central African lakes at about the 15th century. They mingled well with the Matabele, a tribe of southern Zimbabwe, and the Angoni, a tribe of Malawi. During their inception in Africa, the Zulus did not gain much importance; however, in the 18th century, with the outbreak of tribal hostilities, the Zulu tribe was pushed back into the northern region by the Voortrekkers, or the Afrikaans and Dutch pioneers leaving the Cape Colony to settle into South Africa (The South Africa Guide, 2010). The Shona tribe is also one of the primary African tribes, making them one of the longest-existing tribes in Africa. They are well known for their stone sculptures and mbira music. Mbira is an instrument made of metal reeds which are plucked by the player (Bulawayo History, n.d). The Shona lived in the current Zimbabwe region and based on historical findings, they found their ancestry in the builders of Zimbabwe. Therefore, their roots are founded in the Bantus. Like all other African tribes, the Shona tribe is known to venerate spirits by honoring their dead (Bulawayo History, n.d). Unfortunately, however, they are now a fragmented tribe with little ties or bonds with each other. Conclusion In effect, Muslim and the Islam world have a rich and colorful history. They are intricately bound to each other in terms of beliefs and political structure. The African tribes are also an essential part of African history and most of these tribes make for a unique culture, one which is bound by common languages, as well as distinguished from each other in terms of beliefs and practices. References The Africa Guide. (2011). African people & culture: Tribes & people groups. Retrieved from http://www.africaguide.com/culture/tribes/pygmies.htm Bantu languages. (2011). In Encyclop?dia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/52206/Bantu-languages Bulawayo History. (n.d.). The history of shona tribe in zimbabwe. Retrieved from http://www.bulawayo1872.com/history/shona.htm History World (n.d). History of Africa. Retrieved from http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1473&HistoryID=ab24>rack=pthc Hupston, F. (2009, May 18). Khoisan – indigenous people of Southern Africa: Early inhabitants of Kalahari region of sub-Saharan Africa. Suite101.com. Retrieved from http://www.suite101.com/content/khoisan-indigenous-people-of-southern-africa-a118402 Jelen, T. & Wilcox, C. (2002). Religion and politics in comparative perspective: the one, the few, and the many. New York: Cambridge University Press. Khanbagi, R. (2006). Muhammad the prophet of Islam. New York: Global Scholarly Productions Kreis, S. (2006, October 11). Lecture 18: Islamic civilization. The History Guide: Lectures on Ancient and Medieval European History. Retrieved from http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture18b.html Pipes, D. (1998). The hidden hand: Middle East fears of conspiracy. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. The South Africa Guide. (2010, March 11). South African tribes – culture of south Africa – Zulu tribe. Retrieved from http://www.thesouthafricaguide.com/african-tribes/south-african-culture-%E2%80%93-south-africa-tribes-zulu/ Weatherford, W. (2010). African Background of the Negro. Nathaniel Turner. Retrieved from http://www.nathanielturner.com/africanbackgroundofnegro.htm Africa and the Far East This week’s lecture focuses on the Far East. Re-read last week’s lecture regarding African beginnings, as a review for this week’s discussion of Africa. When you think of the Far East, the word dynasty may come to mind. Why was this word ever associated with the Far East in the first place? Because ancient China (14th-16th Centuries) was ruled under what is called the Yuan and Ming dynasties. The Yuan Dynasty The 16th century marked the end of the Yuan and the beginning of the Ming dynasty. When something is coming to an end, you may think that it is ending because something is wrong with it. This was definitely the case for the Yuan dynasty which was going through economic hardships. The Yuan dynasty was in place from 1279-1368 A.D. and was controlled by the Mongols, specifically, by Khublai Khan. During this time, the development of China seemed to represent progressive times. But, although palaces and canals were being built, they were being paid for by the peasants, which negates the concept of progress for China (MNSU, n.d). Of course, the fact that China was being controlled by the Mongols did not help China’s advancement in any way (Veek, 2007). China was also trying to unsuccessfully conquer to Japan. It was not doing well with its own trade relations because Yuan, the ruling Mongol Emperor, seemed to favor the foreign traders more than the Chinese traders. But, the Chinese citizens did not stay suppressed for too long. As soon as chinks in the Mongol’s armor showed, an uprising of Chinese citizens would easily topple the Mongol rulers, and Emperor Yuan was soon overthrown (Meyer, 1997). Why were these Mongols easily pushed out of power? It was due to their own fumbles. One major fumble was their ignorance of the Chinese. They did not invest any time into relating with the Chinese. As mentioned, they actually treated foreigners better. This was a fumble that did not ultimately serve its interests and in the end, it paid in a major way; China was lost and the Yuan dynasty collapsed (Minnesota State University, n.d.). The Ming Dynasty As one dynasty falls, another one often rises. The Ming dynasty emerged through Zhu Yuangzhang, a Han Chinese peasant and rebel army leader. This dynasty was referred to as the Empire of the Great Ming, hence the derivation of the name “Ming.” Just as dynasties often gain power by manifesting their might, the Ming dynasty did so in a major way when it conquered Annam or Northern Vietnam. With more power came more representations of strength; and the Ming dynasty did not disappoint as it went on to the Indian Ocean and the east coast of Africa (Minnesota State University, n.d). Yuangzhung went on to manifest China’s sea-strength through various maritime explorations and domestic trade activities. In 1433, however, these explorations stopped. Specific reasons for the cancelled explorations were never known. Some speculations indicate that the explorations subsided because the emperor realized their great expense. Other speculations indicated that China could not afford to concentrate its resources outside the country when its borders were being pressured by the Mongols. Court opposition may have also played a hand in stopping these large scale explorations. It was believed that some conservative officials viewed such explorations as completely alien to the ideas set forth by the government (Lu, 2007). China was a resilient country and was soon pressured by the Neo-Confucian bureaucracy to revive the strict agrarian-centered traditions. In the fashion of stability and strength, the Ming dynasty became a stabilizing influence. It enhanced more than the economy, it also enhanced the arts, society, and politics (Minnesota State University, n.d). But, like all good things, they eventually have to come to an end. The Ming dynasty was slowly chipped away by the wars with the Mongols, the entry of Japan into Korea, and the harassment of its coastal cities by Korea. As its defenses were down, it also became vulnerable to foreign powers. True enough, by 1644, the Manchus, who were from Manchuria, invaded Beijing and ruled north China, establishing the imperial dynasty known as the Qing (Haw, 2007). Once again, another dynasty ended and another began for China. The Fall of the Dynasties It is also important to note that Yuangzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty was poor when he joined the Red Turban rebellion in the lower Yangtse region. Coming from poverty, which usually encompasses the uneducated, Yuangzhang was suspicious of educated people surrounding him. This suspicion made him an extremely authoritarian leader (China Knowledge, 2000). His leadership style was a remnant of the previous Mongol leadership—a mostly centralized leadership process. Yuangzhang handled the responsibility of running the government. What he did not like, he just abolished. As you might infer, he was making a negative impact on the people and other authorities. He even installed Brocade Guards which are equivalent to a secret service staff governed by his trusted eunuchs, or castrated guards (China Knowledge, 2000). China became a culture of mistrust during this period. On his death, Yuangzhang would be taken over by his grandson Zhu Yunwen. But his reign was short and after only four years, Zhu Di, his uncle, and the fourth son of Yuangzhang would take over the throne. Zhi Di shifted the country’s capital from Nanjing to Beijing. Zhu Di’s reign proved to be one of the most prosperous periods in the Ming dynasty. Beyond the eunuch’s role in the imperial secret service, they also played a major role in political affairs and were eventually able to occupy important government roles. Eunuchs were able to climb the social ladder, so to speak (China Knowledge, 2000). Many eunuchs were lucky because most of them came from a life of poverty. The intermingling between the elite gentry and the eunuchs soon became a problem, which laid the ground for issues in the Qing dynasty. Conclusion Through the rich history portrayed by China, it is encouraging to note how China has managed to rise above the different changes in its governance. During the 14th to the 16th centuries, the country experienced the worse of the Mongol rule and the first taste of its self-rule. These experiences soon laid down the foundations for this resilient country. References China Knowledge. (2000). Chinese history – Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Retrieved from http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming.html Haw, S. (2007). Beijing: a concise history. New York: Routledge Publishing. Lu, S. (2007). Chinese modernity and global biopolitics: studies in literature and visual culture. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. Meyer, M. (1997). Asia: a concise history. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. Ming Dynasty. (2010). Travel Guide. Retrieved from http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/history/ming.htm Minnesota State University. (n.d.). Ming Dynasty. Retrieved from http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/later_imperial_china/ming.html Veek, G. (2007). China's geography: globalization and the dynamics of political economic, and social change. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. Southeast Asia, Japan, and Europe When you think of China and Japan, it may be natural to think of them as neighbors because of their geographical proximity to one another. This proximity, however, has created much conflict between these two territories. China and Japan As the bigger and more influential state, China’s culture has influenced the country of Japan through its art, religion, and politics. In fact, Japan was introduced to written language by China and ultimately, Japan’s history was shaped by China’s influence. The religions of Buddhism and Confucianism were introduced to Japan, early in its history, by China. These religions had a major impact on Japanese culture, as they also affected its art and governance. At one point in its history, Japan’s government was based on Confucianism and Buddhism; Japan’s artwork featured neo-Confucian influence which was very much similar to Chinese art. The centralized rule you see in Japan, was influenced by China during a time when Japan was having difficulty with its governance. As a result, more formal government processes soon followed the introduction of the centralized government to Japan. With these influences alone, it may be difficult to identify what was distinctly of Japanese origin. But, the influences were good for Japan because the Buddhist religion grew at the start of the 13th century. One of its more influential followers, Honen, founded the Jodo sect of Buddhism. The Jodo sect was founded on the fact that the divine winds were able to create storms which helped Japan defeat the Mongols, Chinese, and the Korean invading armies. Trade relations between China and Japan were resumed in the 15th century because both nations wanted to improve their economies and fight off difficult times. China’s influence even went as far as impacting Japan’s currency, as they began using Chinese coins. Buddhism in Japan The teachings of Buddhism grew further in Japan as Razan, a follower of Confucianist Seika, promoted education based on the teachings of Buddhism and with these teachings, Japan’s leaders were able to learn idealist philosophies. Of course, with idealism came bigger ideas; and these ideas would later turn into land reforms. With the teachings of Buddhism, the arts also gained much progression; in fact, martial arts increased among the Japanese people. The Confucian principles influenced the philosophies of the Japanese samurai warrior. As progress was gained through poetry, more books and schools were introduced into Japanese society. During the 14th through 19th centuries, Japan was able to focus its development in these artsy areas. To add more flair, new forms of art were also brought into Japan from China and most of these artworks provided for elegant entertainment in Japan. Advanced courtly culture seen in China gained the admiration of Japan; and, it was not long before Japan also adopted these practices to match their military might and prestige. All in all, the practices adopted by Japan from China were those which fit its aesthetics very well and which complemented its culture and traditions. Japan’s History Japan is considered a late-comer in Asian history and it was first noted by historians through China’s historical accounts. China speaks of Japan in its 57 AD accounts where it referred to the land simply as Wa. You might wonder where they would draft the name, Japan, from Wa, but as we know, the name Japan would come later. In Chinese descriptions, Japan was referred to as a land divided into a hundred or so island and separated into tribes without any political cohesion at all. With China already under a centralized imperial rule, it was difficult for them to understand the lack of cohesion. Japan only started recording its history around 600 AD. In order to get a handle of Japan’s history, its neighboring countries would also have to be researched. Japan’s historical accounts include its influences by the Korean peninsula and of course, by China. Japan’s Cultural Revolution China made demands more demands on Japan during the Cultural Revolution, and as was mentioned these reforms included changes in the government, in their religion, and in their writing. The Japanese culture has its early beginnings from the immigrants of 3rd century BC, but as we discussed, most of the Japanese culture is molded from the Chinese. This will later drive Japan’s Cultural Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries when the scholars attempt to reclaim the original culture from its Chinese influencers. Such a revolution near to impossible by this time, however. These two cultures were so tied to one another. Can you imagine the complex process of unraveling an integrated culture? Even if you succeeded, there’s a risk of toppling the foundations of, not just one, but two cultures as well. Despite the wars which seemed to wage constantly with China, the Japanese people embraced Chinese ideas and culture. And so, the influence of China in Japan would remain for the duration of its history. Conclusion So based on the previous discussion, it is appropriate to conclude that China had a major influence in Japan’s culture, in terms of its political, as well as its religious processes. Japan, in a way, was awoken by China and was able to gain better cohesion as a government through the influence of China. This discussion brings focus to the week’s discussion on how China has influenced Japan in general. References Beck, S. (2005). Summary and evaluation: Ancient china to 221 BC. Retrieved from http://www.san.beck.org/3-13-Summary.html Hooker, R. (1996). Ancient Japan. Washington State University. Retrieved from http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/ANCJAPAN/ANJAPAN1.HTM Jacobson, S. (2010, September 29). Chinese influence on early Japanese culture. eHow. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/facts_7197318_chinese-influence-early-japanese-culture.html Teeuwen, M., Breen, J., Inoue, N., & Ito, S. (2003) Shinto, a short history. New York: Routledge Visiting Arts. (2006, October). Japan cultural profile: Chinese and Korean influence - gigaku, gagaku. Retrieved from http://www.culturalprofiles.net/japan/Directories/Japan_Cultural_Profile/-10586.html China and India This week’s focus on China can be explored through your text readings and last week’s lecture as we discussed the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Review these sources as a refresher on China’s development. Here, we will discuss India’s beginnings, which is similar to China in that its rulers were part of a dynasty. Let’s explore further. 14th Century India Many of you may have the perception that India’s history is exotic and rich, and you would not be wrong. Fourteenth century India, just like China, was ruled under two dynasties–the Khilji and Tughlaq dynasties. These periods are known to fall under the Delhi Sultanate. This sultanate was composed of powerful Islamic groups from Turkey and Afghan region; their rule was based in Delhi. This period is also marked by autonomous Muslim power (Schmidt, 1995). So, as early as the 14th century, we see a link between India and Islam which goes to show that the Muslim influence was as widespread as other cultures and religions. At this point, the capital of India was Lahore, later moved to Devagiri, and finally Delhi. And, as we saw with the Chinese dynasties, when one falls, another comes into power. The Khilji Dynasty Th succession of the Khilji dynasty is as bloody as one might expect with one power ending by the death of ruling authorities. In this case, Balban of the Slave dynasty died, and Jalalluddin Khilji was placed into power (Gateway for India, 2005). Allaudin, the nephew of Jalaluddin, wanted to take the throne from his uncle. So, he had Jalaluddin killed and proclaimed himself Sultan in 1296. More killings and conquests followed from this seemingly bloodthirsty ruler when he conquered Chittor, a city on the banks of Ponnai River at the southernmost part of Andhra Pradesh after killing their ruler Rana Rattan Singh. Allaudin’s Queen, along with other women even committed Jauhar (self-immolation) in order to avoid being captured by the Muslims (Gateway for India, 2005). After a few short years, he was almost in control of the entire North Indian region. Even as Allaudin seemed invincible, his reign was not without its problems as the Mongols carried out successful attacks on his territories several times (Gateway for India, 2005). But, he was a smart leader, and learned from these attacks. He learned to be prepared and to strengthen and organize his forces. Allaudin is considered one of the greatest leaders of the Sultanate kings; not only for his conquests, but for major changes he implemented in the way the territories were governed. While previous rulers based their strength on army control of the important towns, he allowed the headmen of the rural areas to rule their own area. These headmen then became the middlemen between the Sultan and these areas (Indian Mirror, 2011). This was a very encouraging process to implement as it gave the headmen a chance to govern their areas with more control. Allaudin started different reforms and controlled these reforms as he saw fit. He removed previously issued land grants from the rich courtiers and from his officers. He also reorganized the management of revenues and he set a fixed revenue rate of fifty percent of the standing crop to be collected from the peasants. This practice was very much beneficial to the poor peasants who previously suffered from heavy taxes from the government. I think this act alone can endear him to anyone. During the Khilji dynasty, a large army for the defense of Indian territories was set up. This army also guaranteed food for the people. The army became raiders and foragers for the people. Alcohol was prohibited in the region and the rich were not allowed to have private meetings or parties, in order to exert control over these rich courtiers. Allaudin also set forth spies in different parts of the kingdom to update him on any developments taking place in his sultanate (Indian Mirror, 2011). Allaudin implemented major and often startling reforms in his sultanate; however, these reforms were often limited to the city of Delhi and its surrounding areas. Unfortunately, the reforms were not as widespread as they should have been. Allaudin would later die in 1316 and Mubarak Khan, his third son, would ascend the throne. Mubarak’s rule was a disappointment as he was not as strong and as bloodthirsty as his father. He was eventually murdered by Khusru Khan, a Hindu slave. This ended the Khilji dynasty (Gateway for India, 2005). The Tughlag Dynasty The Tughlaq dynasty started when Ghazi Tughlaq, the governor of the northwestern provinces, claimed India’s throne after killing Khusru Khan (Thorpe, 2008). Yes, more blood shed. Tughlaq met an accidental death in 1325 and was soon succeeded by his son, Muhammad bin Tughlaq. The expansion during Muhammad’s reign reached its peak as his empire reached various stretches of India with Peshawar in the north, Madurai in the south, and from Sindh to Assam in the east (Thorpe, 2008). One interesting thing about Muhammad’s reign is he introduced copper and brass as currencies equal to silver and gold coins. However, forged coins began to surface; soon after, copper, brass, and bronze was withdrawn as currency. Muhammad’s reign did not last long as he died from an illness in 1351, and was succeeded by his cousin, Feroz Tughlaq (Thomas, 2004). Feroz did not contribute much to the empire. He did initiate the construction of buildings using architectural skills, and reformed the currency system; but, he was intolerant towards other religions (Gateway for India, 2005). The invasion by the Mongols in 1398 made the situation for the Tughlaq Empire worse and brought forth the end of the Tughlaq dynasty. Timur, the Mongol conqueror, added insult to injury by destroying various temples in north India. Delhi was also plundered and thousands were killed and by 1414, the Saiyyid dynasty succeeded the Tughlaq dynasty (Thomas, 2004). Conclusion From the discussion of Chinese and Indian dynasties, the transition of power from one dynasty to another is apparent. China saw the rise and fall of its dynasties and this trend was also seen in India. The Khilji and the Tughlaq dynasties present the rise of power of different rulers and leaders who successfully or unsuccessfully governed their territories. In fact, these leaders have laid out the current geographical and political set-up seen in current day India. References Gateway for India. (2005). The Muslim period in Indian history. Retrieved from http://www.gatewayforindia.com/history/muslim_history.htm#The%20Khilji%20Dynasty Indian Mirror. (2011). Khilji dynasty. Retrieved from http://www.indianmirror.com/dynasty/khiljidynasty.html Mahajan, V. & Mahajan, S. (1962). The rule in India, Volume 1. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. Singh, M. (2007). Dalit's inheritance in Hindu religion. New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House. Schmidt, K. (1995). An atlas and survey of south Asian history. New York: M.E. Sharpe. Thomas, E. (2004).The Chronicles of Pathan kings of Delhi. New York: Kessinger Publishing. Thorpe, V. (2008). The pearson guide to Bank probationary officer recruitment examinations. India: Pearson Education India. Wrapping Up History It is easy enough to imagine Western Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries because these periods were assessed many times during our studies in history. Humanism Humanism is the literary and cultural movement which spread over Western Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries with the emphasis on the value of the classics for their own sake, not based on their religious relevance (Kohl, n.d). It is an “artsy” movement and was started by writers Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch through their classical contributions. Other “artsy” scholars were also influenced by the work of Dante and company and this led to the establishment of the Platonic Academy of Florence (Kohl, n.d). Humanism was affected by Greek and Latin literature and philosophy and it soon became the educational program Humanities. Some of you may even have taken this subject as a course so you might be able to relate with this topic well. Anyway, with the work of Petrarch, humanities came to mean a dynamic cycle of education, including grammar, history, poetry, and philosophy (Grafton, Most, and Settis, 2010). Erasmus (you might have heard of him) of the Netherlands was one of those affected by humanities. He conceptualized satires on the corruptions of the clergy and he also showed the similarities between Christian beliefs with pagan traditions (Kohl, n.d). The work of Thomas More (yes, he wrote Utopia!) emerged at this time and more works from various scholars spread geographically throughout the Western European territories. European Culture Before the onset of Italian Renaissance, the system of education in Europe was controlled by the Latin Church and basically just taught religious doctrines. In the 1300s this changed when various scholars discovered Plato and Cicero. Cicero was a Roman philosopher and statesman who also studied the humane sciences (CosmoLearning 2007). There were also some innovations in music in Italy and by the 15th century the Burgundian school started Renaissance in music and polyphony of the Netherlanders. The paintings of the Italian renaissance were very different from the Northern renaissance with the Italian painters less inclined towards religious art. The work of Pieter Bruegel also influenced the works of other artists which included depictions of daily life (CosmoLearning, 2007). Renaissance art was seen in Spain through the work of Ausias March and Martorell. This was very much influenced by Italian renaissance. Renaissance writers were also seen at this time through the works of Jorge Manrique and Garcilaso de la Vega. In Portugal, renaissance influence became manifest with the impact of Italian merchants (CosmoLearning, 2007). Christianity But what of Christianity, you might ask. Well, Christianity gradually gained a firm footing in Western Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries with the founding of the Jesuit orders propagating Christianity in Europe (Philtar, n.d). The founder of the Jesuit order was Ignatius of Loyola who was a soldier recovering from his wounds and was inspired by Jesus’ work. Yes, this sect still exists today as a Catholic ministry. The words used here may seem civil but the Rome and Protestant “battles” were more inflammatory. The Catholic Church, in response to the Protestant Reform sought to rid itself of the corrupt practices which plagued its overall practice. In the process, the teachings of the church became rooted on these reforms with many people still being influenced by Rome’s teachings. For thirty years, the Catholics and the Protestants waged conflicts with each other with both religions trying to gain firm footing in Western Europe (Spielvogel, 2008). At some point, Protestantism gained more power in some parts of Europe, and vice versa. Nevertheless, in the process of conflict, Christianity found its roots in Western Europe (History World International, n.d). Thankfully enough, these “conflicts” have become less inflammatory. References An Overview of European History (n.d) History World International. Retrieved from http://history-world.org/an_overview_of_european_history.htm Europe 1300-1699 (2007) CosmoLearning. Retrieved from http://www.cosmolearning.com/topics/europe-1300-1699-renaissance/ General Essays on Western Christianity. (n.d) Philtar. Retrieved from http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/christ/west/westessay.html Grafton, A., Most, G., & Settis, S. (2010) The Classical Tradition. USA: Harvard University Press Kohl, B. (n.) Humanism. Holy Smoke. Retrieved from http://www.holysmoke.org/sdhok/humanist.htm Loffler, K. (2011) Humanism. Make Believe. Retrieved from http://mb-soft.com/believe/txn/chrishum.htm O’Malley, J. (1999) The Jesuits: cultures, sciences, and the arts, 1540-1773, Volume 1. New York: University of Toronto Press Spielvogel, J. (2008) Western Civilization: Since 1500. California: Cengage Learning Read More