Evidential Markers in English The Word Apparently - Assignment Example

Evidential Markers in English: The Word Apparently Evidential markers are linguistic representations indicative of the source of the speaker’s information. Evidential markers will thus indicate whether or not the speaker is transmitting information personally observed (direct) or whether or not the information was obtained via another (indirect) (Mullan, 2010). Thus evidential markers in English are characterized by three specific semantic expressions: an act of cognition, the method of knowing and certainty/uncertainty (epistemic) (Brinton, 1996). The word apparently is an example of English evidential markers in that it represents an act of cognition, a mode of knowing and expresses both a degree of certainty and uncertainty. The word apparently is representative of an act of cognition because it demonstrates the speaker’s state of mind and conveys what he or she thinks, believes or even guesses based on information received or observed indirectly. As Briton (1996) explains, words demonstrating an act of cognition are generally associated with a mental construction of “evidential markers from verbs of cognition” which are “analogous to the development of hearsay, sensory, and inferential evidentials from verbs of perception” which mean “hear, see, and feel” (p. 243). Therefore the word apparently is a construction of information observed by the speaker. The speaker is not conveying infinitive information, but rather information that is not only indirect but open to challenge. From a cognition perspective, there is always the possibility that the speaker is misinformed or has erroneously interpreted information observed or overheard. The mode of knowing is obvious in the use of the word apparently. Implicitly, the speaker is not conveying direct knowledge of a fact but rather an inference drawn from information. The use of the word apparently is demonstrative of the speaker’s unwillingness to commit to a definitive conclusion but rather a willingness to offer an interpretation or perception of the information received or observed (Brinton, 1996). The speaker limits the information to an inferential form and is thus manifesting a degree of uncertainty by using the word apparently and failing to assert unequivocally that the information observed or received can be conclusively stated. Faller (2002) describes what is known as the reportative marker. The reportative marker is relevant to the word apparently because it offers a contradictory stance on the part of the speaker. The speaker is expressing a narrative and an outcome and is thus asserting a fact while refusing to state whether or not the speaker believes the assertion to be conclusive (Faller, 2002). Faller (2002) resolves this conflict by using the Segmented Discourse Representation Theory which distinguishes between informative discourse and information relative to the speaker’s perceptions and intent. The word apparently fits in Faller’s (2002) Segmented Discourse Representation Theory as it serves two conflicting purposes. It provides a narrative and an outcome. The speaker, by using the word apparently is offering a conclusion and at the same time, uses the word apparently as a caveat and thus qualifies the information imparted. The information is qualified by virtue of the fact that the speaker is conservative and intentionally distances himself/herself from the conclusion and the narrative. The distance occurs since apparently does not convey direct knowledge and does not transmit a firm conclusion. When the word apparently is used as an evidential marker it can be challenged because it raises a number of questions. The first question is where the information is derived from and whether or not the original source is credible. Even if the original source of information is credible, a further question arises as to whether or not the speaker can draw the conclusion that is drawn. Each of these questions are necessarily raised by the speaker’s use of the word apparently. When a speaker uses the word apparently, they are deliberately leaving open the possibility that that information interpreted may be erroneously interpreted or that the speaker’s own feelings are in doubt. Obviously, if the speaker is not prepared to assert a conclusion or a fact infinitively, leaves open the possibility that the speaker may be wrong in reaching the conclusion that he or she reached. Challenges automatically arise when the word apparently is used in the transmitting of information. This is because, the word apparently as an English evidence marker is both “inconclusive evidence” and “indirect evidence” (Hogeweg et al, 2009,p. 10). The word apparently is highly suggestive of “sensory evidence” (Hogeweg et al, 2009p. 10). As such the speaker leaves open the possibility that he or she is not in possession of all of the facts and is unaware of all of the relevant circumstances. Thus the recipient of the information is at liberty to form the view that the speaker only has a part of the evidence and therefore is unable to offer a firm assertion of the facts (Hogeweg, et al, 2009). It therefore follows that the use of the word apparently as an evidential marker can raise more doubts than certainties. As a result, the word apparently invites exploration of questions that not only expose the uncertainties implicit in the word apparently, but also an exploration of the information that is not known and how that unknown information may lead to a different conclusion from the one assumed by the speaker. Thus the use of the word apparently is open to various challenges which are primarily linked to the reliability of the conclusion drawn by the speaker. Essentially, the use of the word apparently as an English evidential marker is an embedded occurrence because it is not the speaker’s own assertion or evidence. The speaker is referring to indirect evidence and is not speaking for personal or direct knowledge of the thing asserted. For example it can be assumed that such a speaker is referred to as an “attitude holder” (Faller, 2002). The speaker is projecting an attitude or a perception of indirect evidence or an interpretation of partial evidence. Thus the use of the word apparently is more accurately described as an embedded occurrence. A number of languages have evidential markers that are designed to give expression to information sources or evidential modes. These languages have what can be described as “lexical means for optional specification of the source of knowledge” (Aikenvald, 2004, p. 3). In English, the word apparently can mean “it seems to me” (p. 3). In Russian a similar evidential marker would be jakoby, mol deskatj which means “hearsay” (Aikenvald, 2004, p. 3). In French the word devoir would also give expression to second hand information in the same way that the word apparently would in English. Similarly, the word disque in Brazilian Portuguese translates to mean “one says that” (Aikenvald, 2004, p. 3). Evidential markers such as the use of the word apparently are of virtual universal applications. Many languages use variations of the English word apparently to convey incomplete information or conclusions drawn on incomplete information. The word apparently is used as an evidential marker so that the recipient of the information is aware that the conclusion and the narrative containing the conclusion may not be the only conclusion or narrative. Therefore, the use of the word apparently as an evidential marker is always open to interpretation. Bibliography Aikenvald, A. Y. “Evidentiality: Problems and Challenges. Cited in Linguistics Today – Facing a Greater Challenge. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing Co. 2004. Brinton, L. J. Pragmatic Markers in English: Grammaticalization and Discourse Functions. Berlin, Germany: Mouten de Gruyter, 1996. Faller, Martina. "Remarks on Evidential Hierarchies." Cited in, Beavers, D. L.; Beaver, L. D.; Martinez, C; Brady, Z. D. and Kaufman, S. (Eds.). The Construction of Meaning. Stanford, CT: CSLI, 2002. Hogeweg, L.; de Hoop, H. and Malchukov. Cross-Linguistic Semantics of Tense, Aspect and Modality. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Johsn Benjamins Publishing, Co. 2009. Mullan, K. Expressing Opinions in French and Australian English Discourse. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, John Benjamins Publishing Co. 2010. Read More