Language and Communication - Report Example

Language and Communication As most parents will testify, children seem able to communicate with othersalmost from birth. While the meanings may not be completely clear, parents of newborns are quickly able to tell the difference between a child who needs a change, one who is hungry and one who is angry and demanding attention based simply upon the type of cry being voiced. As they grow older, they begin to demonstrate that they understand gestures and the words of others even before they have learned to utter their first word. As Gordon Wells (1986) indicates, the entire function of learning language and interacting socially is geared toward making connections with other people as well as to help the individual make sense of their experiences. “Language occurs through an interaction among genes (which hold innate tendencies to communicate and be sociable), environment, and the child’s own thinking abilities” (Genishi, 2006). But just how does this happen? How do children learn to use sounds to communicate and then to place those sounds in the correct order to make themselves understood? While some of this behavior can be attributed to imitation of the caregivers, there remain aspects to the development of language and communication that cannot be so easily explained. To provide a more complete understanding of how language and communication develop in the young child, it is necessary to understand not only the primary terms that are applied, but also the parts and components that make up language. The ways in which children seem to be ‘prepared for’ communication and language development will be discussed, which will lead into an examination of the theories that have been developed. An understanding of behaviors that serve to support or expand on communication and speech as well as how other environmental aspects of the child’s world may contribute to the development of language will help identify those strategies that are used to encourage language development as well as some of the common mistakes children make when learning their language skills. Finally, typical rates of progress in language development for normal children under the age of four will be presented. There are several terms used in a discussion of language development that may not be quite as obvious as they might seem at first glance. Generally speaking, language is defined as a set of symbols, typically in the form of articulatory gestures and the creation of sounds, which are used to communicate or store information (Eccardt, 2003). “The symbols are words, and their meanings cover everything we humans deal with … Generally, the above definition puts the label ‘language’ on English, Spanish, Chinese, etc. It also covers sign languages for deaf people” (Eccardt, 2003). However, it does not necessarily include mechanical forms such as the alphabet, writing or other forms of expression. This is quite different from what is meant by the term ‘communication.’ Most experts will define communication as a process of transferring meaning through the use of various means, including language, gestures, written words or other symbols. “There are three key elements in this definition: process, meaning and message … Note that ‘process’ is a verb of action. Somebody does something. That ‘doing something’ involves meaning and messages … Meaning is a subjective experience in our lives … Messages contain coded meaning and allow us to express or convey the meaning within us. Messages require rules like syntax and semantics” (Booth-Butterfield, 2007). Syntax and semantics will be discussed in more detail in a moment. Linguistics is the term used to describe the scientific study that incorporates all of the above to form a unified idea of how language and communication is developed. There are five basic components of language that the young child must learn to understand and utilize in conjunction with each other. These include phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. These components are inherent in every known language. “Language acquisition progresses across these components with increasing quantity (e.g. sounds, words, and sentence length) and gradual refinement, and understanding of the subtler and more complex points of usage (e.g. using ‘taught’ rather than ‘teached’)” (Popp, 2004: 41). The term ‘phoneme’ is used to refer to a specific sound, such as that one makes when pronouncing the letter ‘b’. Therefore, phonology is the study of the rules of pronunciation and basic patterns of speech within a particular language or region (Snow et al, 2002: 22). This is the most basic form of language, leading into morphology, which refer to the smallest units of meaning, such as ‘hat’ and the use of plurals, the past tense ‘ed’ or affixes like ‘un’ and ‘re’. Syntax looks at the way in which sentences are formed, the grammar of the language in use and appropriate word order. Moving into higher usage of language, the individual begins to understand semantics, or the meaning behind the words that are used to convey worlds of meaning beyond the literal translation. “It is our understanding of semantics that allows us to recognize that someone who is ‘green with envy’ has not changed hue, or that ‘having cold feet’ has less to do with the appendage at the end of our legs and more to do with our anxiety about a new experience” (Popp, 2004: 42). Finally, pragmatics can be said to refer primarily to speech styles, which has a great deal to do with the tone that is adopted, the structure of the speech and the use of slang or alternative methods of expression. “The way we speak to our parents is not the same as the way we interact with a sibling, for example” (Popp, 2004: 42). Our speech pattern changes depending upon the individual we are speaking with and our assessment of the most effective means of communicating to them our meaning most specifically (Snow et al, 2002: 22). When working with small children, researchers typically only concern themselves with phonological, syntactical and semantic development. There have been conflicting theories as to whether or not children are born already prepared to learn the language and communication modes inherent to those individuals around them. This idea was argued perhaps best by Noam Chomsky, who claimed that human beings were pre-programmed with a Universal Grammar through which small children were able to learn the various constructs of their native language within the first three years of their life as opposed to the several years required for linguists to learn a second language later in life. “As a materialist he is required to believe that this grammar is somehow concealed in the physical workings of the brain itself, and that it is the end-product of a succession of evolutionary accidents ... In accepting [these assumptions], he is faced with the task of explaining how this Universal Grammar might operate. He does this, as do materialists the world over, by making use of mechanistic imagery” (Cruse, 2007). However, new studies seem to justify this concept as young children, regardless of their native language, have demonstrated an ability to complete complex analyses and interpretations that had never been taught within their native language as early as age 3 that are difficult to explain through any theory of unguided induction and imitation (“Born to Speak”, 1998). Whether this hard-wire ability to quickly decipher and employ the essential components of language – syntax, phonology and semantics – actually exists or not, there are several other factors that contribute to the normal development of language and communication strategies in young children. Other theories exploring the ways in which young children might acquire language and communication skills include behavioral theories, cognitive theories and theories of discourse. B.F. Skinner is perhaps the most famous of the behavioral theorists. His ideas suggest that learning is a function of change in overt behavior (Skinner, 1953). When a person reacts to outside stimuli in a specific way that earns them a reward, they are more likely to repeat that action, such as repeating the repetitive sounds ‘ma-ma’ or ‘da-da’ in response to a caregiver’s prompts. This general set of theories argues that language development occurs primarily as the result of association, reinforcement and imitation. While memory is not thought to play a large role in language acquisition, cognitive theories such as those proposed by R. Schank (1975) indicate that the most important processes for language development are formed around schema, rule structures and meaning. This theory was also advanced by D. Ausubel (1963) and L. Landa (1974). One method of language development that is receiving increasing attention is in the realm of the theories of discourse, in which it is felt that children learn a great deal of their language from simply having conversations with others, whether they are parents, relatives, playmates or others. This concept is supported by Hatch (1983) as well as Vygotsky (Wertsch, 1985) based on earlier research that suggested children gained much of their language development during play. According to Jerome Bruner, there is a “plausible hypothesis that the evolution of play might be a major precursor to the emergence of language and symbolic behavior in higher primates and man” (1976: 21). With all these conflicting and competing theories, the question remains, what are the best ways of fostering language development in young children? While few agree upon the exact way in which children learn language, there have been some identified behaviors that support or help expand children’s communication and speech abilities. Yet, here, too, there are conflicting recommendations. While some studies have suggested that “infants rely heavily on segmenting longer utterances into their individual words,” a study conducted by Michael Brent indicated that infants younger than 15 months learn those words their mothers use in isolation much faster than words that are included in longer sentence streams (“Parents’ Instinct”, 2001). While the debate rages whether parents should speak in single word statements or in full sentences to their infants for greatest effect, it seems no longer argued that parents can have a profound influence upon their children’s future lingual abilities simply by encouraging them to talk. “Parents do make a difference … The stimulation parents and other caregivers provide in the first three years sets the stage for effective, productive communication skills that will last a lifetime” (“Baby Talk”, 1999). This chattering of young children is an important part of the natural language learning process. Children who are involved with those around them, whether those individuals are adults or other children, are engaged in behavior that fosters their language development and encourages the development of further communication skills. As they play with others or try to communicate their experiences, they learn new words, refine their syntax and practice their pronunciation. These behaviors that promote and expand the development of language in young children suggest that environmental factors may also play a significant role in the development of language. One such factor is the IQ levels of the parents. Parents with higher IQs or higher levels of education may have a greater tendency to keep plenty of stimulating materials around the house in addition to being more inclined to provide their children with enriched activities. Parents with low IQs may not realize they are raising their children in an intellectually or linguistically impoverished environment (Harms, 1998). Children who live in poverty may have more difficulty in mastering language than children living in more affluent homes for a variety of reasons. They generally experience less interaction with their parents, who are typically working as often as possible to pay the bills and generally don’t have the same high quality nutrition that fosters the biological development necessary for key areas. For many of these children, their primary interaction is with the television screen, which is a poor substitute for the dynamic give and take interactive nature of a personal conversation. Positive environmental factors include plenty of stimulating toys and activities designed to help a child explore their world, the availability of an adult with whom the child can discuss their findings and from whom the child can receive guidance in how best to express the experiences gained (“The Early Years”, 2000). Although these are the tendencies, this does not mean every child who grows up in poverty will have a much greater potential to have language learning difficulties later. Young children who are provided a warm, safe, loving environment, with plenty of stimulating (not necessarily expensive) activities and the opportunity to converse on a regular basis with both peer groups and adults will have the same sorts of advantages as children who grow up in more affluent households with similar circumstances and genetic potential. So what can be done to help stimulate young children’s communication and language development? There are plenty of fun activities that adults can do with children to help them develop their vocabulary while encouraging them to interact (Honig, 1989). One such activity is tying the adult’s or child’s activities to words by describing what is being done. Playing games such as charade’s, on a child’s level of experience of course, can help children to develop their non-verbal communication skills as well as encourage their semantics and pragmatics. When parents talk with young children, Honig (1989) suggests they use adult conversational practices such as meeting them eye-to-eye, practicing the ‘taking turns’ aspect of conversational flows and expanding their vocabulary according to their own level so as not to overwhelm them with too much too soon. When participating in structured activities that involve a specific series of steps, an adult’s gentle reminder of how to do things in order can also help cognitive development in developing a concept of syntax. Conversations between an adult and a child can be stimulating as well if the adult remembers not to just provide the pat, half-conscious ‘uh-huh’ response resulting from a busy schedule but encourages the child to make comparisons, develop conceptions of time or space and ask open-ended questions to encourage the child to elaborate. Other ideas for conversations include helping the child make up stories, talk about their feelings and begin to express cause and effect relationships. Fun activities can include any of the above, but are especially effective when combined with music or rhythms which capture the child’s imagination and sense of play. Whatever the activity, the child should not be made to feel as if it is a chore, but rather as if they are playing a new game or just chatting with Mom. Finally, parents who read to their children begin to foster a life-long habit that continues to enhance language and communication development as the child grows older (Honig, 1989). In learning language, there are several common mistakes made by children learning English as their native tongue. These types of mistakes are common in other languages as well, however, the forms and specific words are naturally different. One of the most common mistakes made by young children is known under the term ‘overregularization.’ In this case, children “apply past tense suffixes of regular verbs to irregular verbs” (Strobel, 1993). An example of this mistake pattern would be when the child says they ‘goed’ to a party rather than that they ‘went’ to a party. “Children later learn the correct forms, although some errors, like digged instead of dug, can persist until high school” (Strobel, 1993). Another example of common errors made by toddlers in language acquisition is in the syntactical order of ‘wh-‘ questions, such as who, what, why or where. “The most common errors are failure to include an auxiliary and placement of the auxiliary after, rather than before, the subject” (Valian & Casey, 2003: 118) such as in the question “When Lucy can yell?” Other mistakes in pronunciation and enunciation may also be a natural part of the development process, but sometimes other issues interfere with a child’s ability to communicate, such as a hearing impediment or a motor difficulty. While each child develops according to their own pace, scientists have found a fairly consistent developmental process in the child’s acquisition of language. Most of this growth occurs in the first four years of the child’s life beginning usually around six months of age when the child begins to respond to his name and making vocalizations of their own. They also begin to respond to voices without the need to rely on visual cues and begin to respond appropriately to angry or happy tones. By the time the child is one year old, he or she can probably use one or more words with true meaning and understand simple instructions (“Language Development”, 2006). The child begins to practice inflection in the words he uses and has become aware of the social value of speech. A vocabulary with up to 20 words consisting primarily of nouns has usually developed by age 18 months and the child may spend a lot of time repeating words or phrases over and over again. They are able to follow simple commands and manage to place a great deal of emotional content into the things they say. The Terrible Twos are typically ushered in with a very talkative child who can name a great number of objects that are common to her surroundings and can use at least two prepositions, such as in, on or under. Their vocabulary has expanded to 150-300 words and at least two thirds of what they say is understandable to adults. They are beginning to combine words into sentences that are most often a noun-verb combination and they can usually begin to use pronouns correctly. While they still usually have difficulty with modulating rhythm, volume and pitch, they are becoming more and more capable of responding appropriately to questions and instructions (“Language Development”, 2006). Most of what children say are general intelligible by the time they are three years old as their vocabulary continues to grow (usually up to about 1000 words by now) and they become more able to handle longer (3 word) sentences. They begin to relate their experiences to others in a way that can be understood and they are able to understand questions regarding their feelings, such as whether they’re hot, cold, hungry or thirsty. By four years old, the child usually knows the names of most familiar animals, common objects, colors and numbers. They can use or at least understand prepositions and handle words containing up to four syllables. Pronunciation errors have typically cleared up and the child becomes even more talkative, exploring imaginary worlds, spatial concepts and spends a great deal of time repeating things they’ve heard. While there remains much room for debate regarding not only how language develops, but also the nature of language (is it primarily through nature or nurture that we are able to acquire it?), there remains much that can be done in a variety of environments that can help foster a strong development of language and communication skills in the young child. An understanding of the various processes that a child steps through as they grow can help a parent or caregiver provide appropriately challenging, yet not overwhelming, stimulation. It seems apparent that at least a portion of a child’s ability to learn language stems from genetic, innate abilities, but it also seems apparent that environmental factors have a great deal to do with the child’s ability to exploit this inborn talent to its fullest potential. Children who are born into poor developmental environments and do not receive appropriate intervention at a very young age, prior to age 3, may enter their academic life already far behind the rest of the class in terms of language ability. This can have long-term effects upon the child’s learning outcomes and self-confidence. Clearly, more is needed to be known regarding the specific roles various theories might play in the development of a child’s language development, just as more study should be conducted as to just what activities and behaviors can help foster greater growth. References Ausubel, D. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. 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(2006). “Young Children’s Oral Language Development.” Child Development Institute. Available March 21, 2007 from < http://academia-research.com/writer/index.php?pg=ordp&e_id=159180> Harms, William. (August 11, 1998). “Ability to Learn Greatly Influenced by Environmental Factors, University of Chicago Study Finds.” University of Chicago News Office. Hatch, E. (1983). Pyscholinguistics: A Second Language Perspective. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Honig, A.S. (1989). “Talk, Read, Joke, Make Friends: Language Powers for Children.” Day Care and Early Education. Vol. 16, N. 4, pp. 14-17. Landa, L. (1974). Algorithmization in Learning and Instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. “Language Development in Children.” (2006). Child Development Institute. Available March 22, 2007 from “Parents’ Instinctive Use of Isolated Words may Help Babies Learn Language.” (February 28, 2001). Science Daily News. Washington University in St. Louis. Available March 22, 2007 from Popp, Patricia. (December 2004). Chapter 5. Reading on the Go! Students who are Highly Mobile and Reading Instruction. Greensboro, NC: National Center for Homeless Education. Schank, R.C. (1975). Conceptual Information Processing. New York: Elsevier. Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan. Snow, C.; Burns, S. & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (2001). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. (6th Printing). Committee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children. National Research Council. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. Strobel, Gabrielle. (February 10, 1993). “Neural Networks Stumble Across Same Mistakes as Children in Learning Language.” Stanford University. Valian, Virginia & Casey, Lyman. (2003). “Young Children’s Acquisition of Wh-questions: The Role of Structured Input.” Journal of Child Languages. Vol. 30, pp. 117-143. Wells, G. (1986). The Meaning Makers: Children Learning Language and Using Language to Learn. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books. Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Read More