Isaac Newton: the True Mark of Greatness - Research Paper Example

? Day Month Year Isaac Newton Introduction It is amazing to think over what must go through one’s mind when considering the greatest of anything. Whether it is the greatest athlete, cook, or even philanthropist, there is perhaps no bigger honor than having the title of “greatest” bestowed upon you. Sir Isaac Newton is one such individual who garnered such praise. Being called by many as “the greatest genius and scientist who ever lived” (Smith 345), Newton is attributed with much of the knowledge available to modern scientists and mathematicians today. There are, however, many facets to this man’s life, other than being a scientist, that are worthy to know. Perhaps that is what truly causes mankind to label an individual the “greatest.” Possessing not only scientific prowess but also religious and philosophical ponderings, Newton is still a focus of conversation in academic and theological circles nearly 300 years after his death. While people will certainly argue that Sir Isaac Newton should not be considered the “greatest,” the author of this paper will argue that he is certainly worthy of that title based on the magnitude of his scientific discoveries and the depth of his wisdom and thinking. Sir Isaac Newton, from England, made his mark on the areas of physics, mathematics, astronomy, natural philosophy, alchemy, and theology. That is quite an impressive resume to say the least. One interesting item to note when comparing Newton to other “geniuses” of the modern era is the fact that he really did not demonstrate his phenomenal abilities until after adolescence. In fact, he lived a rather normal and dull academic life through primary and secondary school. It was not until his time at Trinity College, beginning in 1661, that he began to really excel and get noticed. During this time period, academic life was dominated by the teachings of Aristotle, Descartes, Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. Being somewhat of a loner, Newton spent much of his waking hours devouring the teachings of these great men. This is likely when he developed such a broad academic interest. It is amazing to consider all of the various fields previously mentioned that Newton ended up excelling in. Of course, he did not just excel in them; he ended up altering and changing the face of each of these disciplines, as we know them. It was during his time at Trinity that Newton discovered the binomial theorem in mathematics. He then, during these brief four years of undergraduate work, began to develop infinitesimal calculus. Even with these major accomplishments, amazingly he still graduated relatively unnoticed and simply returned to his family home. It was there that he spent two years engrossed in theories on calculus, optics, and the law of gravitation. Upon completing them, he was lured back to Cambridge and became a fellow at Trinity. It was in this capacity that in addition to his scientific pursuits, he became intrigued by philosophy and theology. This was likely due to the fact that in England during this time period, fellows were required to become ordained priests in addition to carrying out their academic duties (Morrison 133-135). Even though he was heavily influenced by religion and philosophy during his time as a fellow, his pursuits in the areas of physics and mathematical theory continued to dominate his time. Later in his life, however, he began to write volumes on his philosophy about religion. In fact, during the 1690s he wrote a series of religious writings that dealt with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Some of his religious writings were published; others were so controversial that they remained unpublished. That is the nature of a genius, however. His thought process revolutionized the way in which the religious world looks at theology. Since the field of theology is slow to change in comparison to the scientific world, however, much of his work was so groundbreaking that many critics of Newton arose and countered his arguments. Finally, it is perhaps important to note that Sir Isaac Newton never married, although it is rumored that he was once engaged. It is perhaps because of his lack of a family life that Newton was able to devote his entire adult life to the further development of his mathematical theories and concepts. He never let his academic pursuits go and he is still the focus of a grateful scientific community. Were it not for Newton, the fields of calculus and optics, among others, would likely still be in their infancy to this day. To further support this argument that Newton is among the greatest geniuses of the modern era, it would behoove us to examine a few of his major accomplishments and achievements. Theory of General Gravitation Among many theories uncovered by Newton, his Theory of General Gravitation ended up perhaps becoming the most revolutionary. This one theory actually combined philosophy with science. Analytical methods were mixed with historical Cartesian based philosophy. The sheer genius of this process is amazing enough in its own right. These series of theories, however, were not without their critics. For example, “Newton’s concept of inertia, understood as vis or the force inherent to bodies, had become outlandish to the Continental revolutionaries” (Maglo 140). Other scientists, such as Jen Le Rond d’Alembert, came along and began to challenge the major premises set forth by Newton. Namely, the principal concept in question was Newton’s use “force” in quantum physics. In the end, however, these scientists simply provided a framework for their own theories that discounted Newton own “conception tools and scientific values” (Maglo 141). In the end, this simply strengthened Newton’s theory and garnered him more critical acclaim. It is certainly not uncommon for one scientist to question another. Rather, it is sheer jealously or it is the belief that science is never truly known. One theorist is bound to fiercely disagree with another. What is interesting about Newton, however, is that many such scholars, upon trying to disprove certain aspects of Newton’s theories, ended up respecting and accepting them even more. The famous philosopher Huygens, for example, talked at length back in 1688 about how Newton expounded on Cartesian vortices in ways previously never thought of. In fact, he proclaimed that Newton “has taught us that the planets are kept in their orbits by gravity” (Maglo 145). In addition, this fact about gravitational alignment led to our understanding that “eccentrics must necessarily become elliptic figures” (Maglo 145). Other scientists and philosophers during this age become engrossed by Newton and how he seemed to solve all of the problems induced by Kepler’s laws. In the end, even a one-time critic, Huygens, went to great lengths to go out and meet Newton for himself. He found Newton’s work to be beautiful discoveries and that the works he read concerning mathematics were groundbreaking and revolutionary (Maglo 146). Finally, it is important to note that theorists such as Huygens demonstrate the manner by which Newton challenged the current field of academics. While many during this time felt that Newton’s theories could not be held up against the Cartesians based on scientific standards and values, other felt it was Newton’s desire to challenge conventional wisdom and practice that made his findings all the more relevant, true, and innovative. Newton’s Views on Religion and Science It has been said by many that you can be a scientist or you can be a religious believer but you cannot be both. Sir Isaac Newton obviously did not hear or believe this, however, because he was quite a religious person. We already know of his scientific genius, but his theological work provided great contributions to the field of religion as well. This is quite unique in academic circles as, perhaps, never before did a brilliant mathematician and scientist develop such an equal fascination with the supernatural as well. Newton’s views on science and religion, commonly referred to as Newtoniasm, influenced such evolutionary thinkers as Volatire, Darwin, and D’Holbach. Many atheists such as D’Holbach used Newton’s principles to support their various suppositions. Newton, in essence, dramatically influenced the era of time referred to as the radical Enlightenment tradition (Lightman 154). The argument, then, becomes how exactly science and religion are related. Many try to separate the two and claim you must theorize about one or the other, but never the two shall be intertwined. Modern scientists try to use Newton’s theories to prove the non-existence of the supernatural, while Newton himself did exactly the opposite. In other words, the relationship between science and religion truly seems to change depending on who is doing the theorizing and postulating (Lightman 156). This further demonstrates the greatness of Newton in that he was the scientist and the theologian who used science to prove his belief in deity. Whether future scientists adhere to that view or not, he would be pleased to note that his writings and concepts have given food for thinking for several centuries now and continue to be the focal point of discussion in academic circles to this day. Others Adopting the Newtonian Soul Perhaps the most vital testament to Newton’s “greatness,” and a further support to the argument that he is one of the most influential scientists and philosophers to have ever lived, is the influence he has had on countless academicians to follow. Let us look at Samuel Clarke as an example. Clarke was a philosopher who had mastered the system of Newton. He devoted much of his academic life to theological pursuits and used the musings of Sir Isaac Newton in his publications. Based on his life long pursuits, and seemingly motivated by Newton, Clarke is known for his efforts to demonstrate the existence of God. He also formulated his Theory of the Foundation of Rectitude. The motivation for both of these came from Newton. Jeffrey Wigelsworth notes, when writing about Clarke, “many of the arguments found in [his] writings were generally no other than Sir Isaac Newton’s philosophy” (Wigelsworth 45). What Clarke did was to take Newton’s thoughts and formulate them into his own theories, but certainly based upon what Newton had already discovered. This is the essence of science and theology. They are both evolving disciplines and are fluid and constantly in motion. Man will likely never know all there is to know about science and the supernatural. Instead, every once in a while, a genius like Newton comes along that alters that shape of thought. Such a person inspires future generations of scientists and philosophers to take the theories they developed, expound on them, and learn even more about this world in which we live. Newton was such a person. Clarke, for example, “embraced the inverse square law of centripetal forces and concurred with many of Newton’s theological views” (Wigelsworth 46). So, reflecting on Newton’s theology enabled Clarke to provide validity to theories that were in question and many critics were in disagreement with. This validation and support of Newtonian philosophy further enhances Newton’s status as a great man in the academic world. A further distinction is that people such as Clarke did differ and challenge even Newton in certain areas. This is natural. As new ideas and discoveries are made, there are bound to be changes that become resultant. Newton is certainly no exception. What is clear, however, is that the core of Newton’s scientific, mathematical, philosophical, and theological theories remain to this day and form the basis of future research and thought (Wigelsworh 48-51). Newton’s Legacy After Death Man wants to be remembered long after he is gone. He wants to have made some mark, big or small, on the society in which he lives. That is the goal of the rational being. The great man, however, leaves a lasting legacy that alters the entire course of civilization for generations to come. Naturally, this author holds the view that Newton is such a man. There are many facts in support of this, but perhaps the most striking is the sheer amount of Newton’s work that was published and became noticed after his death. Newton, upon dying, left behind countless journals that had never before been seen. The world already knew about his groundbreaking works in the areas of calculus, orbits, and physics, just to name a few. Perhaps there was not time for Newton to inform the world of all that his mind had uncovered during short life. Whatever the reason, volumes of his work were uncovered upon his passing and many of these papers have found their way into the hands of academic institutions around the world (Von Hofe 63). While Bishop Samuel Horsley published much of Newton’s works in volumes as recently after Newton’s death as in 1785, these were edited works and much was left out. In essence, scholars such as Horsley seemed to hold back writings that they felt were either heretical or, quite simply, not based on scientific fact. His work in the area of alchemy, for example, went largely unnoticed during this time period because of the refusal by those who owned the journal to publish Newton’s work. This is where Newton’s legacy truly comes into play. As recently as in 1936, John Maynard Keynes noticed Newton’s complete works in alchemy. This is 200 years after Newton’s death. Keynes became fascinated with Newton’s thoughts in this area and began buying up the journals wherever he could find them. Newton influenced much of Keynes’ own thoughts in this area from that point up to his own death in 1946 (Von Hofe 64). Keynes really desired that Newton’s work did not become lost to the academic world again. To ensure that this did not happen, he actually willed his entire collection to King’s College in Cambridge where they remain today. In fact, we are just now uncovering what Newton discovered in terms of alchemy today. This is because “this large ‘grey’ mass has re-emerged into the light of day after having been carefully forgotten over a period of two centuries” (Von Hoffe 64). This is truly the meaning of the word “legacy” and Newton’s own legacy is living on today in academic institutions everywhere. Conclusion Greatness is certainly not easy to come by. Certainly, we often call our parents “great.” We call athletes “great.” The list can go on, but these people are known by relatively few and are forgotten after a few generations. The true mark of “greatness,” however, can be uncovered by examining a person’s life long contributions and whether or not they continue to shape civilization centuries later. Aristotle, Plato, and Augustine are a few such men who are considered great because of how their writings continue to form the basis for much of modern day thought. The author of this paper certainly proposes, based on the evidence presented, that Newton falls into this category as well. His theories and writings will continue to form the basis of science for centuries to come. In the words of Pamela Smith, Newton was a major part of the “European achievement from the Renaissance forward, a universe-changing paradigm shift the defined the modern world” (345). Works Cited Koffi, Maglo. “The Reception of Newton’s Gravitational Theory: How Normal Science May Be Revolutionary.” Perspectives on Science, 11.2 (2003): 135-169. Ligthman, Bernard. “Does the History of Science and Religion Change Depending on the Narrator.” Science and Christian Belief, 24.2 (2012): 149-168. Morrison, Tessa. “Isaac Newton, Architect.” Seventeenth Century, 26.1 (2011): 130-148. Smith, Pamela. “Science on the Move: Recent Trends in the History of Early Modern Science.” Renaissance Quarterly, 62.2 (2009): 345-375. Von Hofe, Hal. “Towards a Genealogy of Grey Literature via Newton’s Journals.” Publishing Research Quarterly, 22.1 (2006): 63-68. Wigelsworth, Jeffrey. “The Newtonian Soul.” Journal of the History of Ideas, 70.1 (2009): 45-68. Read More