Motivation As A Contributing Factor In Second Language Acquisition - Essay Example

? Motivation as a contributing factor in second language acquisition BY YOU YOUR SCHOOL INFO HERE HERE Motivation as a contributing factor insecond language acquisition 2. Introduction Researchers continue to provide new insights into what motivates individuals to embrace, acquire, and retain a second language. Literature on the subject continues to reinforce that inherent and externally-driven motivations absolutely contribute to the success levels of acquiring a second language. However, the issue is that there is no singular, fundamental model of motivation as it pertains to second language acquisition (SLA) that can guide instructors of a secondary language or provide further guidance to students in this domain. Therefore, it is necessary to compile the findings of several notable researchers on the subject and determine if there is a best fit model to understanding the motivational variables that contribute to SLA and long-term success after the learning has completed. It is hypothesized that it is externally-driven motivations that contribute the most influence on whether or not an individual remains motivated in this particular task, rather than inherent or intrinsic motivators related to personality, culture, or needs. However, in order to justify this hypothesis, it is necessary to view a cross-section of research findings and expert analyses on the subject to gain perspective on what drives success in SLA as it pertains to motivational stimulus. This literature review provides research data on the educational environment, personality traits in the individual learner, social constructs, and personal attitude components related to cultural values and beliefs. 3. Definitions Before discussing motivational stimulus, it is necessary to define key terms and concepts on the subject: Motives – A specific need or desire that will prompts goal-directed behaviour” Intrinsic motivation – Desire to perform a specific task or behavior which stems from personal gratification for the activity. It is the inherent series of pleasures derived from taking part in a specific behaviour (Ingledew, Markland & Sheppard, 2003, p.1922). Extrinsic motivation – Desire to perform a specific task or behavior based on the rewards or potential punishments that result from the activity. These operational definitions will guide the premise of the literature review on each subject pertaining to motivational constructs. 4. External motivators VanTassel-Baska, Feng, McFarlane & Heng (2008) offered results of a research study involving 100 teachers from Singapore and the United States to determine their level of instructional effectiveness as it relates to second language acquisition. The study measured variables on educator competency such as differentiation strategies, critical thinking and metacognition, a form of self-awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes. In relation to second language acquisition, it was determined that all three factors related to instructional effectiveness impacted motivation in SLA (VanTassel-Baska, et al.). Teacher competency was measured by the ability to create unique classroom curriculum and assist students in understanding their own legitimate limitations as well as talents related to the task. Why is this data important? The methodologies employed by teachers related to their creativity and support (humanistically) in helping students identify with their weaknesses and strengths directly impacted whether or not students in SLA were successful at completing the programme. Achievement levels increased based on the differentiation strategies employed, suggesting a positive correlation with the external environment as a predictor of higher motivation. Gardner (2006) supports this assessment, offering that it is the educational context that determines whether or not students are motivated to learn a second language. The educational context involves the system where the student registered, the classroom environment, quality of the programmes offered, classroom atmosphere, and enthusiasm and skills of the teacher. Gardner refers to these situations as idiosyncratic, meaning distinctive and characteristic traits of the educational environment that make it distinctive when compared to other learning environments. This, too, is supported by Boekaerts (2004) who discovered key elements that are necessary in the learning environment in order to foster higher levels of motivation in second language acquisition. One of these factors is autonomy, meaning a supportive versus controlling environment that gives students the ability to regulate their own progress and gain personal mastery over their learning process (Boekaerts). Feedback mechanisms, such as performance appraisal or the development of a rewards structure have been shown to influence motivational levels in this task. Boekaerts (2004) further provides knowledge of the influence of the learner group, usually a set of peers in the classroom, that determines goal direction, cohesiveness, and peer role modeling for accomplishing the SLA tasks. Under social learning theory, individuals are motivated to model the behaviours of role models when they are deemed credible and legitimate and when they witness behaviours being rewarded (Neubert, Carlson, Kacmar, Roberts & Chonko, 2009). Thus, evidence suggests that when there is an adequate rewards structure established for meeting learning expectations, the learner group influences similar behaviour and establishes the norm for learning throughout the entire classroom environment. Boekaerts calls this direct socialisation of motivation, which puts group affiliation as a motivational element to ensure learning occurs through role modeling. Theoretically, however, this would involve the teacher taking an active role in establishing a publicized feedback system or rewards structure to guarantee that such social learning occurs and behaviours are modelled to achieve SLA outcomes. This assessment is supported by Gardner & Lambert (2008) who offer the phenomenon of group involvement and group membership as a means to ensure higher motivation in second language acquisition. These authors identify that a person will become motivated to achieve learning outcomes simply due to their desire to seek membership among a desired group. When the individual learner views a particular group favorably, in this case a representative of English-speaking culture, he or she will imitate or model this group to gain affiliation and membership. “Such a drive has been hypothesized to explain some instances of marked linguistic attainment” (Gardner & Lambert, 2008, p.267). Gardner & Lambert refer to a similar motivation associated with group membership known as the avoidance dimension where an individual does not see a reference group as having desirable characteristics. Instead, he or she is motivated to achieve SLA outcomes because they maintain dissatisfaction or unfavorable beliefs about their own cultural community, thus they model the behaviours associated with the English-speaking reference group as a motivator. In any event, it is the externally-driven stimulus associated with the reference group and their outward behaviours that contributes to higher motivation to learn. These externally-driven elements are important in understanding motivation in second language acquisition in order to gain knowledge of what type of model would be considered most effective in teaching students and ensuring positive outcomes after the lessons have run their course. It is important for educators to understand, based on the literature, that their own behaviours, competency, and classroom structural components (such as setting up a rewards structure) are vital to improving motivation to learn a second language. Because of social learning theory and behavioural modeling, literature seems to suggest that there should be a social element in the classroom backed by feedback systems or, perhaps, a survey or questionnaire about cultural values to gain knowledge about whether a student is learning for avoidance reasons or simply to gain membership in their desired cultural group. The literature seems to support that there must be differentiation in SLA teaching curriculum in order to gain motivation as well founded on teacher competency in this role as educator. Thus far, the research supports that it is externally-driven stimulus that dictates whether a student in SLA maintains adequate or superior motivation to learn. The following section will describe counter-arguments that suggest it is necessary for intrinsic or inherent factors to be present in order to guarantee more motivation in this process of learning a second language. 5. Perfectionism Perfectionism is a personality-based attribute dealing with an over-emphasis on success and achievement. It is defined as “the setting of excessively high standards of performance in conjunction with a tendency to make overly critical self-evaluations” (Anshel & Mansouri, 2005, p.102). People with perfectionist tendencies experience considerable emotional distress when they fail to meet their inherent demands for neatness, order, precision and organization (Anshel & Mansouri). Perfectionists can find significant blows to their self-esteem or self-confidence if they fail to meet their self-constructed performance standards and targets for learning. Perfectionism was identified as a personality-based variable in determining motivation as it is linked with self-determination theory which determines whether an individual in intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. When a person is intrinsically motivated, they perform a behaviour or task simply for the pleasure and self-satisfaction they receive from the behaviour (Ingledew, Markland & Sheppard, 2003). When extrinsically motivated, they perform a task for the external rewards granted for the task and not for personal reasons (Ingledew, et al.). A perfectionist would work diligently to try to outperform their own (or others’) expectations as part of intrinsic motivation. “Intrinsically motivated activities are those that the learner engages in for their own sake because of their value, interest and challenge. Such activities present the best possible opportunities for learning” (Deci & Ryan, 1985, p.22). Deci & Ryan (1985) are experts in the study of second language acquisition and clearly identify their belief that intrinsic motivations provide the best chances of learning success over that of extrinsic reward structures. Thus, the notion of perfectionism, when it exists and is a real factor that drives individual motivation, should be considered a positive personality trait that can be coerced by educators to ensure learning occurs. It would be hypothesized, then, that an educator could create differentiated classroom structures that continuously challenge the individual to play on these inherent needs for perfection. Though this is only hypothetical and there really is no literature that links perfectionist values to second language learning, it was only identified as a theoretical construct to highlight inherent values and beliefs as a motivational tool and then compare this to external rewards structures or similar extrinsic rewards. Why is this? Anshel & Mansouri (2005) identify in their research that critical feedback, when presented to a perfectionist personality, greatly contributes to emotional distress and diminished self-confidence. Feedback is an externally-driven variable, however it seems to have direct impact on the inherent personality-based functioning of the second language learner. It was hypothesized that externally-driven stimulus would have the most impact and since feedback can absolutely distort the perfectionist motivation levels, it tends to support that external scenarios or variables contribute more to harming motivation. Not everyone who learns a second language, however, would fit the perfectionist personality profile, but for those who are similar in their dedication to achievement, self-determination can be lessened by external feedback. How is this supported? Under Abraham Maslow’s generic theory of needs fulfillment, all people require affiliation from others in order to achieve their greatest self-confidence and perceptions of control (Gambrel & Cianci, 2003). Assuming that all learners would fit this needs profile, then internal needs related to confidence-building, under this motivational model, are directly impacted by the external environment. Without affiliation and group membership, Maslow would argue that confidence, esteem and control are not possible. Maslow’s theory of externally-driven factors supports the concept that lack of group membership and belonging can disrupt even inherent values related to second language learning which would ultimately disrupt ongoing motivation. It is up to the reader, then, to determine which is more powerful: externally-driven stimulus or inherent values. If fundamental group affiliation is necessary to be fully motivated, then it would seem that regardless of what internally-driven motivations are present, second language acquisition motivations are ultimately limited. Gardner (2000) supports this notion by describing three distinct factors that motivate a learner to gain mastery over SLA processes and systems of learning. These are xenophobia, ethnocentrism, and authoritarianism as it relates to the reference group, in this case English-speaking cultural actors. Whether positive or negative sentiment is associated, inherently, about a reference culture, motivation to learn a second language is driven by internal values and beliefs about the culture. “A willingness to identify with the in-group is necessary” to achieve positive learning outcomes in SLA (Gardner, 2000, p.10). So, what relevance does this have to understanding what type of model would best serve a second language student or the educational curriculum that guides this learning? Negative values related to xenophobic tendencies toward the English-speaking culture or ethnocentrism creates a situation where the reference culture is turned into the out-group. Even though some students desire and are motivated to learn a second language for only practical reasons (Gardner, 2005), Gardner’s view is that there must be an affiliation with the in-group and therefore the student must carry positive beliefs about the English-speaking culture before they will gain mastery and control over the SLA learning process. 6. Implications for teaching/learning Yashima (2002) refutes the determination of external forces outweighing internal values in second language learning under the theory of International Posture. This involves the generalized attitudes about the international community to influence whether English learning will be successful. It is an openness to other cultures, measured by intercultural friendships, interest in interaction with foreigners, and also interest in foreign affairs (Yashima). According to Yashima, these are internalized values and beliefs that have little to do with outside influence. If we are to assume that Gardner, Lambert, Chonka, Boekaerts (et al) positions are correct, then it again supports the hypothesis that it is necessary to have externally-driven stimulus, in some form, in order for there to be high levels of motivation toward the learning process and achievement in SLA. The implications to teachers is that they must be more integral and visible in the learning process and identify what inherent traits exist in their learner groups to effectively implement an SLA programme that will meet with positive outcomes long-term or short-term during the instructional periods. Further, there is enough evidence to accurately suggest group affiliation is a necessity to ensure high motivation in learning even supported by the most foundational psychological theory. 7. Conclusion The literature review does not concretely prove the hypothesis that externally-driven forces provide the most motivation in second language learning, however the volume of evidence provided by the literature seems to outweigh inherent values as motivators. It was determined that the educational context, group affiliation, potential reward and feedback structures, and behavioral modeling can be effective in coercing motivation to learn a second language. These are environmental motivators that are directly associated with secondary learners and the educator himself. The literature provided opens opportunities for further studies, such as identifying the perfectionist learning profile compared to a standard, normal learner that fits typical social norms related to personality. Such research would advance society’s knowledge of motivation in second language acquisition to determine a best-practice model for guidance to educators and students who are interested in learning or struggling with SLA task management and systems. Despite the margin of opportunity for further learning on this subject, it should be said that is is likely the external stimulus that impacts motivation to a much higher degree than that of inherent values or intrinsic beliefs related to learning in SLA. References Anshel, Mark H. & Mansouri, Hossein. (2005). Influences of Perfectionism on Motor Performance, Affect, and Causal Attributions in Response to Critical Information Feedback, Journal of Sport Behavior, 28(2), pp.99-125. Boekaerts, M. (1994). Action Control: How Relevant is it for Classroom Learning? In J.Kuhl & J. Beckmann (eds), Volition and Personality: Action versus State Orientation (pp.427-435). Hogrefe & Huber. Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum. Gambrel, P. & Cianci, R. (2003). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Does it apply in a collectivist culture?, Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 8(2), pp.143-162. Gardner, R.C. (2000). Correlation, causation, motivation, and second language acquisition, Canadian Psychology, 41(1), p.10. Gardner, Robert C. (2005). Integrative Motivation and Second Language Acquisition, Department of Psychology University of Western Ontario, p.8. Retrieved October 21, 2011 at http://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/caaltalk5final.pdf Gardner, R.C. (2006). Motivation and Second Language Acquisition, University of Western Ontario. Retrieved October 21, 2011 from http://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/spaintalk.pdf Gardner, R. & Lambert, W. (2008). Motivational variables in second-language acquisition, Canadian Journal of Psychology, vol. 13, pp.266-272. Retrieved October 21, 2011 at www.proquest.com. Ingledew, D., Markland, D. & Sheppard, K. (2003). Personality and self-determination of exercise behavior, Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 36, pp.1921-1932. Retrieved October 22, 2011 at http://www.psych.rochester.edu/sdt/documents/2004_ingledewmarkland.hjp.pdf Neubert, M., Carlson, D., Kacmar, K., Roberts, J. & Chonko, L. (2009). The Virtuous Influence of Ethical Leadership Behavior: Evidence from the Field, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 90, pp.157-190. VanTassel-Baska, J., Feng, A., MacFarlane, B. & Heng, M.A. (2008). A cross-cultural study of teachers’ instructional practices in Singapore and the United States, Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 31(3), pp.214-243. Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL context, The Modern Language Journal, vol.86, pp.54-56. Appendix A: A Relevant Motivational Model for SLA Read More