Modern Architectural Designs and Features in Construction Industry - Literature review Example

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES/IMPACTS DURING AND AFTER CONSTRUCTION Environmental issues/impacts during and after construction: Challenges and controlling strategies Name Course Institution Date Introduction Deterioration of environment across the globe has attracted the attention of the world and has been one of the key issues discussed internationally, nationally, and locally. According to Morledge and Jackson (2001), the globe is in a serious environmental problem owing to the rapidly increasing population that has consequently caused an increase in built environment. Morledge and Jackson (2001) posit that built environment has led to the depletion of ozone layer, depletion of resources, climate change, destruction of the environment. Apart from the environmental impacts, construction activities can have significant impacts on the public. These negative impacts have placed the construction sector under the spotlight because its activities significantly affect the environmental and human health. According to Shen and Tam (2002), Construction works usually has various effects on the environment throughout the development life cycle. These effects are witnessed in all stages of construction, from the first work on-site through the construction period, operational period, and to the final time where a building is demolished at the end of its life cycle (Shen & Tam, 2002). According to Morledge and Jackson (2001), the construction process takes a shorter period compared to other phases of the life cycle of a building but it has the most significant impacts on the environment. This paper investigates the environmental issues or impacts during and after construction, with a key focus on environmental challenges and their controlling strategies. Public Protection According to Teo and Loosemore (2001), construction process involves three different phases: preconstruction phase, construction phase and the operation phase. The preconstruction phase involves the development of construction plans, finalizing them and submitting them to the authorities for permits. It also involves doing tests in order to examine soil and water levels as well as the environmental conditions of the area including the effects the construction will have on the environment (Morledge & Jackson, 2001). The second phase involves laying the foundation of the construction. This involves a lot of excavations, laying of footings, telephone, electricity and water cables, erecting of walls and installing drainage systems. Once the walls have been erected, doors and windows are then installed, roofing and ceilings too as well as the flooring and cabinets. Other final procedures are carried out in preparation for the final stage; the operation phase. This is whereby the owner can do a walk-through of the building with the constructors, going over any final touch-ups before the occupation of the building. All these construction phases have significant impacts on the public. According to Morledge and Jackson (2001), deaths resulting from construction site accidents have been recorded in various parts of the world. Construction workers surround themselves with tools, machinery, and building materials, which can sometimes be hazardous. Such workers face several accidents, which can be as a result of falls as they work at very high heights on roofs and windows relying only on ladders to hold them up. Such falls sometimes even result in deaths. In fact, the Bureau of Labour Statistics reported that they account for 34% of deaths of construction workers (Morledge & Jackson, 2001). Workers may also slip and fall because of the uneven ground and even holes. They are also exposed to naked wires, uncompleted electrical systems and power lines, which can cause electrocutions and shocks should the workers been exposed to them. Furthermore, they are exposed to the risk of being hit by falling objects, debris or materials as well as the risk of getting stuck in between heavy and immovable objects such as machinery, tools and fallen debris (Morledge & Jackson, 2001). Lastly, the workers are exposed to risks of getting burnt or torn apart due to fires and explosions from leaking gases, uncompleted piping and electrical systems (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). Yet, it is not only the workers who are at risk. Others not working directly at the site too face the same dangers. Sometimes members of the public and even children are killed or are severely injured from accidents brought about by the construction activities. Thus, protecting the members of the public has been emphasized a lot. In fact, the law requires that one should conduct one’s business in a manner that does not put members of the public at risk. Children and other outsiders may be killed or injured when they accidentally fall into trenches, when tools and other building materials fall on them outside the construction site boundary or when they are hit by moving plants or vehicles used for transportation. Local governments, construction companies, construction workers and project clients all work together to ensure the safety of the public. The project client need to provide clear information about boundaries, neighboring land usage, site access and measures that can be put in place to eliminate access by unauthorized persons such as children. The client responsible for the construction project needs to define clear boundaries. This can be done through fencing depending on the nature of the construction site and the surrounding. In a highly populated area, a two-meter high mesh fence should be constructed. Other means can be the use of signs placed strategically at all entrances or exits of the construction site to warn off approaching persons of possible dangers (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). Furthermore, all excavations need to be fenced and in the case where they retain water, then they should be securely covered, and warning signs as well as lightings placed to prevent people from accidentally falling into them at night (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). A controller can be assigned to redirect people or traffic to a different route. If possible, a temporary by-pass can be provided to be used by the public or other traffic besides those belonging to the construction company. Barriers around the work area can be erected including even temporary barriers like heaps of stones or sand. In addition, the site should be locked at night and all machinery and equipment should be tagged out. The contractors also need to consider the neighboring land usage. Construction sites near schools, for example, will require that the contactors be extra vigilant. Construction workers usually make their deliveries using heavy vehicles such as Lorries and trucks, which may prove to be hazardous to the children (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). They therefore need to ensure that all deliveries are made when classes are still going on; neither in the mornings when children are going to schools nor in the afternoons when they are going back home. The schools should be informed in advance so that they too can take additional safety measures to cater for the risks posed by the construction. They trucks should also utilize routes they are authorized to use in all their entries and exits to and from the site whenever such routes exist. If it is not possible for the delivery trucks and Lorries to steer away from the main road, then temporary pathways should be availed for the pedestrians and the children. Such walkways must be located at safe distance from the site and should be clearly displayed by use of signs, guardrails, bollards, road timbers, and cones (Ling & Lim, 2002). Notice for such planned diversions and creations of pathways must be given to the local government Roadwork Control Unit, Fire Brigades and all other agencies providing emergency services in advance. This will ensure that the necessary control measures and precautions are taken (Ling & Lim, 2002). Such footpaths must also be created in such a way that pedestrian safety is paid attention. They should be kept clean, free from clutter and debris and the walking surfaces are ensured that they are not made slippery by oil spillage and mud (Ling & Lim, 2002). The walking surfaces should also be uniform, have no steps, have ramps, good lighting and where necessary handrails. In the event that local residents and other visitors gain access to the construction site, safety measures need to be taken into consideration. A worker charged with ensuring their safety must at all times accompany such visitors (Ling & Lim, 2002). They must also be provided with the necessary safety clothing and equipment such as helmets, gumboots, and reflector jackets. Such sightseers must not be allowed to the work area. Signs warning against hazardous equipment such as dampers nail guns, and cement-mixing machines must be clearly displayed as well as signs warning against excavations (Ling & Lim, 2002). Environmental Impacts Apart from the dangers exposed to the public, construction activities also have several impacts on the environment. According to Shen and Tam (2002), construction sector is one of the largest contributors of deterioration of environment as the sector is among the leading sectors in terms of exploitation of ecological resources. Construction industry depends majorly on the ecological resources for the supply of construction materials such as sand, aggregate, and wood. The constructions process itself also relies on the natural environment. A recent study shows that the construction sector alone make use of 50% of the natural stones, sand, and gravel in the world and 30% of the wood annually (Shen & Tam, 2002). The industry also uses 20% of the global energy and 50% of water per year (Shen & Tam, 2002). This exploitation of natural resources by the construction industry leads to permanent impacts on the environment, both from scenic and ecological perspectives (Shen & Tam, 2002). Construction activities and the extraction of raw materials used in these activities also leads to atmospheric pollution. According to Teo and Loosemore (2001), 35% of water effluents, 45% of air pollutants, and 15% of other pollutants in the United States emanate from construction activities. Dust and other releases comprise various environmentally harmful substances such as suphur oxides and nitrogen emitted to the atmosphere during extraction and transportation of the construction materials and from activities taking place at the construction sites (Teo & Loosemore, 2001). Another example of toxic substances that are common in the construction are chlorofluorocarbons used for insulation purposes in buildings and in air conditioning, fire fighting systems, as well as refrigeration plants (Shen & Tam, 2002). These substances are one of the largest contributors of ozone layer depletion (Shen & Tam, 2002). According to Djokoto and Dadzie (2013), during the preconstruction phase, that is when the site for construction is being prepared, various negative effects to the environment are encountered. These impacts could be because of noises from the trucks being used in preparation, for example, during clearing and transportation of equipment to the construction site. Secondly, there are waste products being emitted in the initial stage of construction such as dust and smoke. These cause air pollution, which is pose devastating impacts on the environment (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). Thirdly, when the fuels used such as oil and lubricants get accidentally spilt, soil get contaminated hence causing soil pollution (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). Finally, in the process of transportation of construction materials and equipment, the trucks being used might cause traffic jam on roads leading to pollution of KVFA platform (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). Djokoto and Dadzie (2013) posited that there are possible issues or impacts of the construction phases to the environment whenever there is no good management. The first stage of construction involves clearing and excavation. This process involves removal of the top soil rich in nutrients and humus (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). In so doing, the soil fertility is lowered, that is, the soil is less fertile. This is known as soil degradation. Apart from soil degradation, the soil in the construction area is further contaminated due to accidental spillage of fuels such as oils and lubricants from the machines being used (Zobel & Burman 2004). The soil is also contaminated in the site of construction if there is insufficient storage of the waste products, that is, poor disposal of waste products such as metals, plastics, and polythene bags. Apart from soil pollution, noise pollution also occurs as a result of tool and equipment works and noises from vehicles on the site. Air pollution is also experienced during the construction phase. The smoke emitted by the vehicles being used and the dust from the construction materials are enough to cause pollution to air. In the final phase, which is the operational phase, it has been studied and concluded that the immediate air pollutionis observed especially if the constructed building was a laboratory (Teo & Loosemore, 2001). When air has been contaminated, it causes a lot of risks to human, animals and plants when taken in. According to World Health Organization (WHO), infectious microorganisms causing serious illnesses are transferred to air directly or indirectly through pollution (Teo & Loosemore, 2001). In every construction process, there are set rules and regulations to the construction firms that should be adhered to. These rules are set to design, install and maintain erosion control measures as well as to minimize the rate of pollutant discharge. To meet this rule, every construction firm is required to avoid leaving a lot of loose or bare soil during and after construction (Teo & Loosemore, 2001). In addition, construction also protects the environment through the rule that every construction firm should ensure soil stability during excavation, that is, to avoid soil degradation. In constructions, there are pollution prevention measures that protect the environment from any kind of pollution (Teo & Loosemore, 2001). Every construction firm is required to put in place, implement and maintain effective pollution prevention measures so as to ascertain correct discharge of pollutants and with the least effects to the environment. There are also prohibited discharges according to the rules of EPA. This protects both the construction workers and the neighborhoods (Teo & Loosemore, 2001). Mitigation Measures To minimize the effect of construction activities on the public and the general environment, it is important to have an environmental management plan as well as the environmental monitoring plan. The objective of these plans is to ensure that the activities taking place during project construction do not have negative effects to the environment. These plans are guided by the Kosovan Environmental legislation and policies of the World Bank (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). According to the Kosovan Law on construction, which is the current legislation that guides construction activities around the globe, every construction firm should put up a fence and proper signals during the site preparations (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). During this phase of preconstruction, all the waste should be packed well and be responsibly transported to the certified sanitary landfill. In addition, before any construction begins, the equipments to be used should be identified and inspected thoroughly to avoid bringing to site damaged and unacceptable tools. The safety measures to the workers in the site and the public should be ensured. Air pollution causes high health risks to humans and environment in general, and it is therefore important to control. Among the substances that cause air pollution is dust. According to Djokoto and Dadzi (2013), dust is one of the factors that pollute the air during construction as discussed earlier; therefore, a way to do away with dust from loose soil after excavation is sprinkling with water. This should be done responsibly to avoid soil erosion due to excessive water. Apart from that, proper identification of equipment is recommended so as to avoid use of damaged or outdated working tools which emit too much noise causing noise pollution (Djokoto & Dadzie, 2013). Contaminated water from the construction site should also be appropriately managed. The wastewater should undergo pretreatment before it is discharged. During the construction phase, regular supervision is necessary to ensure safety of the environment and quickly correct any mistakes that might occur. For instance, during excavation the top soil should be removed to avoid soil degradation (Zobel & Burman 2004). The removed soil should be put aside so as to use it on the leveling of the site after the project has been completed. This process is known as rehabilitation. Hooting should also be avoided as it causes noise pollution to the environment and with this, strict rules should be set up for all heavy machinery drivers so as to minimize the possible negligence (Zobel & Burman 2004). Construction workers and drivers should have clear communication between them to avoid accidence. Damaged equipment and machinery should be avoided in order to steer clear of certain mistakes such as noise and spillage of oils. Again, only the authorized individuals should be allowed to the site. All necessary of signs and signals should be put up and finally for every vehicle leaving the site, their tires should be clean to avoid spreading the dirt all over the place (Zobel & Burman 2004). In the operation phase, the household waste should be packed well and transported to an authorized landfill while the hazardous waste should be treated first. Proper handling and disposal of contaminated materials and wastes is advised as with poor handling, accidents can occur easily. Another way of minimizing the impacts of construction sector on the environment is to educate the players in the sector to embrace green building. Green building has not only been an alternative building design but also a control measure to the negative effects of construction to the environment. Green building is a type of construction design that uses materials that are not harmful to the environment (Zobel & Burman 2004). It is also known as sustainable design or high performance building (Zobel & Burman 2004). Construction sectors in developed countries are increasingly embracing green building. As the name suggests, green building preserves and protects the natural components of the environment surrounding the site of construction. Apart from green building being able to protect the environment on where the project will be laid a worthwhile building will also come out (Chen, Li &Wong, 2005). In general, green building will not only allow the normal activities to happen but it will also preserve the nature around. No damage is prone to happen since this type of construction uses materials friendly to the environment. According to Chen, Li, and Wong (2005), green building is of great importance to the preservation of the environment in that it reduces the carbon footprint and is a strategy friendly to the environment and human health. References Chen Z., Li H. & Wong C. 2005. Environmental Planning: Analytic network process model for environmentally conscious construction planning. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 131(1), pp. 92-101. Djokoto S.D., & Dadzie, J. 2013. Barriers to sustainable construction in the Ghanaian construction industry: consultants perspectives In: Laryea, S. and Agyepong, S. (Eds) Procs 5th West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 12-14 August 2013, Accra, Ghana, 223-234. Ling, Y. & Lim, M. 2002. “Implementation of a waste management plan for construction projects in Singapore”, Architectural Science Review, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 73-81. Morledge, R. & Jackson, F. 2001. “Reducing environmental pollution caused by construction plant”, Environmental Management and Health, vol.12, no. 2, pp. 191-206. Shen L.Y. & Tam V. 2002. Implementation of environmental management in the Hong Kong construction industry. International Journal of Project Management, 20(7), pp. 535-543. Teo, M.M.M. & Loosemore, M. 2001. ‘A theory of waste behaviour in the construction industry’, in Construction Management and Economics, Vol. 19, pp. 741–751. Zobel T. & Burman J. 2004. Factors of importance in identification and assessment of environmental aspects in an EMS context: Experiences in Swedish organizations. Journal of Cleaner Production, 12 (1), pp. 13-27. Read More