Fire Engineering of Building Structures - Assignment Example

FIRE ENGINEERING Author’s Name: Instructor’s Name: Institutional Affiliation: Date of Submission: Part 1 The 1992 Windsor Castle Fire, UK Windsor castle is one of the prestigious castles around the globe. Probably the oldest and magnificent castle has aided in employment creation and improvement of livelihoods of people for over 900 years. Queen Elizabeth II and the royal family hold this castle in high regard. The castle was built in times of great wars. It has survived more than one world war. The castle was declared inhabitable and transformed into luxurious palace after a decision was made by the parliament. The transformed castle contained over 100 rooms and occupied 13 acres of land. William the Conqueror is accredited for the development of the castle. The castle was named after its location. Despite the tremendous contribution of the castle and its survival after it had undergone a shock, it was nearly destroyed by emerging fire (Nicolson 2009, p. 23). The fire began at the private carpel in 20th November 1992. According to a reliable source, the mainly cause of the fire outbreak was a spotlight. The fire resulted from the friction of the curtain with the torch. It raged for the duration of approximately fifteen hours. Despite the efforts of the fire brigade to stop the fire at an early stage, they failed in their objectives living substantial destruction of properties. The royal family was present at the accident spot and gave the fire experts all their effort to see the problem contained. In addition, members of the public were kept in aware of the prevailing condition of the fire outbreak. The fire left roughly one-fifth of the castle costing US $ 37 million destroyed. The cost of rebuilding the castle was borne by the taxpayers (Beard & Carvel 2005, p. 24). Recommendations There were various recommendations made after the Windsor Castle fire tragedy that saw the destruction of property worth billions of shilling. The taskforce that was responsible in finding the cause of fire in Windsor castle recommended the following policy measures (Allen & Iano 2000 p. 45). Fire Safety Policy First, one of the recommendations of the Bailey Inquiry is the inclusion of a Fire Safety Policy. This required the top management to design a clear program detailing the strategy of a fire safety mechanism. They should also be effective management that is essential in ensuring the implementation of the strategy as planned. The policy should be exhaustive and be in consideration of the activities undertaken in the firm. It helps the management in identification of risk activities; thus, making proper planning ensuring that area of highest priority is given more deliberation than those that are less susceptible to fire. A fire safety policy requires that the management give a clear mission statement on its commitment to fight accidents. The management should also specify the objectives of provision of a fire free environment, and mechanisms deployed for the achievements of these targets. Therefore, a quality fire-safety policy was required in the Windsor Castle, to ensure that there was a clear communication path in the organization deliberating on the roles and responsibilities of different individuals in the organization. This would reduce risks associated with confusions emanating from unclear instruction, vision, and dedication in mitigating fire accidents (Maevski 2011, p. 34). Fire Instructions Another crucial recommendation provided after the fires tragedy in the Windsor Castle was the provision of clear fire instructions. The taskforce mandated for the investigation on the possible causes of the fire tragedy found that the fire would have been contained if all the people in the building were aware of their part to play in the event of a fire tragedy. As a result, the taskforce recommended the need of awareness creation to individuals residing in and visiting the castle on the things they ought to do in case of fire outbreak. The instruction should be in written form and made available to all personnel in the building. The task force recognized the need of ensuring that all people understand the instruction provided. For instance, there may be difficulties in understanding how fire extinguishers in the building are operated. It may create complication in the event of fire outbreak since the occupants may fail to initiate the fire fighting gadgets. In addition, lack of understanding of instructions may lead to fatal accidents resulting in deaths. Therefore, proper attention should be given to those with the problem of understanding the instructions; thus, the management should make small pocket versions of instruction guides, which will encourage individuals to review the instructions on a daily basis. The guides will aid in the development of adequate skills dealing with fire accidents. In addition, the management should place copies of instructions in strategic places such as in the resting room, in the dining places, and in the boardrooms among other places (Craighead 2009 p. 23). According to the task force, any instruction given to the individuals in the Windsor Castle should contain some of the following things. First, the instruction should clearly define the action to take in case of the fire. Second, the instructions should deliberate on ways of raising alarms and procedures that should follow. Third, the instruction should specify the actions that individual should take in the event of fire accident. Finally, the instruction should give clear procedures of alerting the stakeholders and the members of fire brigade in an attempt to contain any fire accident (Fritz 2000 p. 54). Fire Safety Training The team recommended fire safety training to all members of staff of the Windsor Castle. It is because lack of experience by the members of the staff accounted for the distraction of property worth a substantial amount. Therefore, the team recommended that staff enrol in effective seminars, to train all of them in principles of fire risks management and corresponding actions necessary to counter the effects of fire tragedies. The team further recommended that the organization keep training records for all employees. This is essential in the identification of qualified personnel to take charge of the supervisory role in the fire management programs. Those holding supervisory roles should undergo more training to enhance their capacities in combating the fire accidents (Fritz 2000, p. 12). Training should also include the use of the fire-fighting equipments, salvage of properties, evacuation of guests, and making proper control of the property recovered from fire accidents (Nicolson 2009, p. 54). Fire Drills To ensure that personnel remain relevant in their field as efficient fire fighters or an apt staff who can respond to the fire incident in a most appropriate way, there is a need for holding advanced fire drills. Fire drills are processes where employees are taken for a scenario set as a test experiment, to see how they will react to a given case of fire accidents. Fire drills prepare employees to handle fire accidents and offer a practical bench on which each can assess his/her skill levels. The team recommended the adoption of employee’s fire drills at least once in 12 months. The drills would enhance their learning effect and enhance their knowledge bank of dealing with fire accidents (Maevski 2011, p. 21). Fire Safety Manuals This is the final recommendation of dealing with the fire accidents in the Windsor Castle. Fire safety manuals should not only include fire prevention policy but also the following (Maevski 2011, p. 78): The manuals should give a detailed description of the building, and if possible, provide a map or plans of the building. This is essential to the fire-fighting brigade because it gives them a mental picture of the layout of the building. The fire-fighting manual should provide any provision that affects the site. This helps in avoiding violation of the laws that govern the fire-fighting exercise. The manual should also include the management policies in combating fire outbreaks. In addition, the management manual should give direction on the way to escape in case of a fire outbreak. It will be crucial in avoiding commotion that surrounds confusion initiated by the fire panic during exit. Conclusion Windsor Castle fire tragedy remains vivid in the minds of many people to date. It is because the fire claimed property of high worth millions of dollars. The sad part of this fire tragedy is the circumstance that surrounds the cause of the fire accident; the spotlight and the curtain contributing to the ignition of the fire. The lesson of the fire accidents is that, individual should always extra careful in using the facilities of any building to avoid any triggering such accidents. Fire in the Mont Blanc Tunnel in Italy, 1999 France and Italy constructed the Mont Blanc tunnel jointly. The tunnel was launched in 1965, and it opened the road network, which eased transport problems between the two countries. The tunnel length is approximately 11600 metres in length. However, two thirds of this tunnel is in France’s territory while the remaining is in Italy (Beard & Carvel 2005, p. 32). The fire catastrophe took place in the Mont Blanc tunnel as from March 1996. The fire went on for more than two days. The fire commenced when a Belgian truck ferrying margarine and flour caught fire, stopping at 6.7 kilometres from the France-Italy track. It then caught the vehicles causing intense heat and smoke, which impeded the activities of the fire brigade. According to investigation, it was found that the probable reason for the fast spread of fire was too much fuel that was in the truck’s tank (550 litres). Second, the truck had ferried 9 tones of margarine and a flour of approximately 12 tons, which amplified the fire building up so quickly. Finally, the truck shell of the refrigerated trailer was made up of combustible compounds. The above reasons explain the fast build up of the fire that went out of control leading to destruction of properties worth billion of dollars (Maevski 2011, p. 39). During the time of the fire accident, there was low supply of air leading to the accumulation of smoke from burning vehicles near the truck. As a result, many vehicles that crowded near the truck became vulnerable to the fire accident. In this incident, the fire went on continuously for two days. Those who died were mainly drivers trapped in the tunnel, and drivers who managed to escape the fire collapsed after running for short distances because of high levels of toxic gas; carbon monoxide (United States 2007, p. 34). The fire accident damaged the tunnel roof estimated to be about 900 meters in length. The fire also destroyed all the tiles along the tunnel. In addition, all the safe refuges were destroyed by fire. Recommendations Basing on the possible causes of fire accidents, the following recommendations were made to ensure increased safety in road transport. The recommendations mainly targeted roads with long tunnels (Brinkhuizen 2010, p. 45). First, tunnel users should be informed about the tunnel and ways to ensure their safety. They should be addressed in English or by using language of the countries in which that tunnel connects. This aims at avoiding the chances of miscommunication to users of the roads, and can lead to a tragedy in case of fire outbreak (Paulino 2008, p.12). The team involved in the investigation also proposed harmonization of the information passed to the road users. As a result, all users should receive communication, which are of the same format, to avoid ambiguity in the message passed. It ensures that road users behave in a coherent manner in case of any accidents. Another recommendation was to select only one person in charge with the tunnel’s operations. The selected official should be in charge in making all key decisions regarding emergency cases and ways of communication in the event of accidents. The selected official should be the only responsible in giving information regarding the state of the tunnel at all time. The logic behind selecting one person to be in charge of the tunnel in all level of communication is to provide a clear channel of instruction; thus, increasing communication efficiency (United States, 2007). Another recommendation aimed at streamlining the communication channels. The team recommended only a predetermined language that the primary official should use in communication. It would aid in easing communication barriers resulting from cultural differences. Therefore, tunnel communication mechanisms embrace only a specified communication flow of channel (Maevski 2011, p.54). Countries crossed by the tunnel should set an emergency response team matched between the two countries. The team will help strengthen the emergency response system. As a result, the efficiency of the countries’ response to the emergency cases is greatly enhanced. In addition, the policy measures are essential in making certain emergency measures are put in place for efficient address of safety concerns (Porter & Prince 2010, p. 71). The final recommendation of the team directed the rescue scenario. Countries connected by the tunnel were to develop a uniform rescue scenario. Thus, they should have the same mechanism of addressing the emergency cases that may occur along the tunnel. It aims at creating fire-fighting synergies that make a great impact in addressing fire outbreak. Conclusion In conclusion, the fire tragedy that was expressed along the tunnel joining France and Italy mainly resulted from communication inefficiencies. In addition, the tunnel was not constructed taking into consideration the possibilities of fire cases. It is because the tunnel lacked enough air ventilation. Therefore, the engineers who constructed the tunnel shared some blame for the tragedies. The lesson leant from this fire accident is that when designing a road tunnel special consideration of fire hazards should be taken into account to prevent possible incidences. Fire in Windsor Tower, 2005, Spain The fire accident occurred in February 12, 2005 in Windsor tower, in Spain. Windsor building was 32-storey tower that was constructed from steel reinforced with concrete. The fire mainly started at the building’s peak, which burned for almost a day and affected the upper ten floors. It was very challenging for the fire fighters to take control of the situation because the fire affected the upper floors. However, the fire fighters managed to control the spread of the flames to the other parts of the building and the neighbouring towers (Brinkhuizen 2010, p.29). In the night, the top most floors that burnt eventually shed off leaving the other floors unaffected. There was panic of the possible collapse of the remaining floors of the building. The panic resulted from the experience of other similar scenario that caused the collapse of the remaining parts of the building. However, in this building, there was no need of panic since the building was constructed using a proper material that was highly resistant to the adverse effect of fire flames. Windsor Tower was constructed using steel and reinforced using the concrete. Steel provided a stable support for the strength of the building, while the concrete propped up steel materials. In addition, the concrete was useful in creating a barrier for heat conduction. Thus, the concrete acted as an insulator rendering the steel incapable of transferring heat to other parts of the building causing more damage (Craighead 2009, p.9). The report of the possible causes of the fire linked the following. First, lack of sprinkler system in the building worsened the situation. It is because the attempts of the fire fighters were greatly hindered, as there were no necessary in-built systems for providing a back-up system to counter the spread of fire. Second, the contractors of the building did not install spandrels according to the recommended guidelines. This became an obstacle towards rapid emergence response activities to salvage the properties and the lives of people. Finally, lack of fire prevention regulations in Spain has played a significant role to this fire tragedy. This is because most building construction was not constructed following any fire prevention guidelines. As a result, majority of the building did not subscribe to the basic fire prevention principles. Consequently, there were increased risks of fire occurrence; also, this reduced the efficiency of fire emergency response programs (United States., 2007). Recommendations After the fire, in the Windsor Tower in Madrid, the task force that was responsible for investigation of the possible causes of the tragedy made the following recommendations (Fritz 2000, p. 32). First, installation of fire fighting tools in the building was given a priority. Some of the equipment included; installation of sprinklers in the building to provide a back up in combating the fire accidents. Second, the task force called for proper formulation of fire regulation statutes that would ensure all constructed buildings fulfilled some of the basic fire prevention measures. This recommendation aimed at bringing discipline in the construction industry; thus, ensuring only standard buildings are allowed for utilisation (Craighead 2009, p. 45). Finally, concerns on the building materials used in building and construction were paramount. It was recommended that all buildings should be built from materials that are resistant to fire and useful in prevention of fire. For example, the committee favoured the use of the concrete over other forms of building materials as it meets the standards and is not a good conductor of heat. Conclusion The fire tragedy of Windsor Tower in Spain left many people marvelled. It is because nobody was, and still not, aware of the real cause of the fire. The investigation team pointed to some possible causes of the fast spread of the fire to the building and other surrounding buildings. However, some believe that lack of proper building standards is to blame for fast spreading of the fire due to the incapacity to control fire within the building. The lesson learnt from the fire tragedy is the usefulness of using proper building materials that can resist the heat from fire. Thus, developers should prefer to use concrete to other building materials. Part 2 Building Construction Methods and Materials Constructions of building across the world are continually embracing changing technologies to create high standard structures. This has helped in the realisation of enhanced building quality infrastructures. However, changing technology has both positive and negative effects in the building industry. As a result, most governments have set rules and regulation that governs the building industry. This is in light of protecting the lives of people from adverse effects of substandard building structures. Thus, the governments have set out standards of building methods and materials that are acceptable in any building construction (Nicolson 2009, p.46). As a result, most architects are continually embracing the standards when designing modern buildings. Law requires architects to ensure that the building designs meet all safety consideration. Additionally, efficient methods utilized in constructing these buildings must be specified. It binds the building contractors by giving them direction on the steps and ways of constructing a building to meet the set standards as stipulated by law. In addition, there laws that govern the responsibilities of the contractors, failure to observe may render one legally liable for their actions. Therefore, it forces the contractors to use quality-building materials to ensure that all safety measures are taken into account (Allen & Iano 2000, p.65). For example, in ensuring that the building is up to the standard of fire prevention, the architect should design it in a manner that allows easy evacuation in case of fire. On the other hand, the contractor must ensure that the design is followed as stipulated by architect. In addition, the contractor must purchase materials that met the engineering consideration and materials should meet the standard specified by the building and construction standards. In the building industry, concrete is highly recommended as a building material. This is because of its high resistance to fire and its strength to remain stable for a long duration. Other material such as steel, iron sheets, and iron rails among others are also vital. However, for good results they should be used together with steel. Possible Strategies of Design for Fire Safety Fire safety has attracted great attention in the world today. This is because many people, nations, and companies have lost properties worth millions of dollars. As a result, individuals are becoming concerned with the possible ways of addressing the adverse effects of fire accidents (Fritz 2000, p.26). To provide an environment free from fire accidents, proper checks and measures are necessary to make certain that fire safety is prioritized. Many modern fire strategies for the complex building infrastructures prefer fire designs that take into consideration the performance. However, fire designs are hard to approve or disapprove because the management has their own take on their suitability on the organizational needs. Regardless of the fire safety strategy employed by the organization, a genuine fire safety strategy should ensure early detection of fire. It will give enough time for evacuation of people and ensures that the fire is dealt with at an early stage before causing more damages. A successfully fire safety strategy should contain at least some of the following features (Fritz 2000, p. 87). First, a proper fire safety design should have an exit signs. This will allow people to escape safely. Second, fire alarms systems are essential in any fire safety design because they alert people when fire occurs. Thus, the strategies efficient in tackling the emergency of fire accidents depend on the time taken to create awareness of the fire occurrence. Therefore, organizations with in-built fire alarms that work efficiently in the creation of awareness of the start of fire are considered to possess optimal fire safety strategy. Creating an alarm does not solve the challenge, but the organization should set mechanism of responding to the alarm immediately. Timely response to the fire depends on the organization’s fire emergency response (Craighead 2009, p.42). Third, fire detection systems are another possible strategy that ensures an optimal fire safety. Large organizations have in-built detection devices that automatically raise alarm in case of fire. This improves communication efficiency because the system has enhanced capabilities of creating an alarm immediately at the occurrence of a fire accident. Finally, to enhance fire safety in an organization is crucial to have a public address system in the organization. They are necessary especial for a large organization. Public address system prevents communication failure that may arise on the occurrence of a fire accident (Fritz 2000, p.43). Smoke Control Movements in the Building Smoke and gases formed from unwanted fire are usually very poisonous to the human respiratory system. Smoke that result from combustion of compounds in the building has a serious effect on the life safety, fire-fighting activities in the building, and property protection. In some fires, smokes generate an inoperable environment. For example, smoke may cover all areas in and outside the building causing visibility problems. It may create a major challenge because sometimes the fire fighters may not be in a position to identify the burning building parts (Fritz 2000, p. 102). Therefore, in any building it is paramount to take into consideration of the ventilation aspects to ensure adequate flow of air. It helps in reduction of the fire accidents and other related accidents such as death due to suffocation. In addition, accessibility of the building is essential in supporting the intervention measures in case of fire outbreak. Accessibility issues should also take into consideration the proximate distance between other buildings for space requirements between buildings. Enough space between building helps to avoid the spread of smoke from one building to another. In addition, it eliminates visibility problems generated excessive smoke resulting from lack of proper ventilation (Craighead 2009, p. 48). Sustainable Energy Technologies and Carbon Management in the Building Sustainable energy technologies are renewable. They are technologies that do not use carbon compounds; thus, there is minimum pollution of the environment because of less carbon component released to the environment. There has been growing concern of investing in sustainable energy technologies. On the other hand, carbon management in buildings is an affirmative action to reduce the use of materials that have carbon compounds in a building material. Thus, carbon management aims at reducing the amount of carbon monoxide released to the environment due to burning of a building or related activities (Nicolson 2009, p.231). Many nations, especially in the western economies are stressing on the importance of the paradigm shift from carbon producing energies to the carbon-free energy technologies. As a result, the use of carbon free components has been embraced in many modern buildings build across the world. In addition, some of the building materials used are free from carbon compound. Application of Extinguishing Agents in the Building As a prevention mechanism to combat the fire risks that may happen in any building, various tools are applicable in the fight against fire accidents. These tools include the following. Gaseous fire-extinguishing agents are commonly used in fire management. They are preferred in cases where the fire sprinklers fail to control the spread of fire. Gaseous fire extinguishers are useful to stop fire caused by oil components. It is because fire caused by oil is problematic to extinguish as water may exacerbate further combustion of the burning component. It may lead to further complication in fighting against the fire accidents. Example of useful gases in combating fire is carbon dioxide. The gas is beneficial in combating the build-up of fire flames (Paulino 2008, p.123). Second, fire sprinklers are crucial agents in fire fighting. Most organizations have installed horse pipes with an adequate supply of water. The pipes have adequate water supply, and in the event of the fire, the sprinklers are used to extinguish it (Fritz, 2000, p.32). Part 3 1. Compare the chemical reaction rates at three temperatures 25ºC, 300ºF and 860ºR. The activation energy is 100KJ/Mole. Make your conclusion how temperature affects reaction rate (10 marks). A temperature of 25ºC (298 K), which is almost to room temperature the reaction rate, is very low. This is because, at low temperature, the rate of particle collision is slow. Thus, there is a low rate of particle collision. Thus, to increase the rate of chemical reaction, temperature should be increased. The chemical rate of reaction increases when the temperature is increased to 300º F (422.04K). This is because the increased temperature amplifies particle collision rate. Increase in temperature lead to fast movement of the particles this increases the bombardment; thus, raising the chemical reaction rate (Beard & Carvel 2005, p. 43). Finally, at 860ºR (477.78 K), this represents the highest temperature and thus the chemical rate of reaction reaches the highest level. The graph below simplifies the relationship of the reaction rate with an increase in temperature. Temperature (Kelvin) Rate of chemical reaction curve Rate of chemical reaction 1. Explain the difference and common issues between the Fahrenheit/Rankine and the Celsius/Kelvin temperature scales. Fahrenheit/Rankine and the Celsius/Kelvin are temperature scale still applicable in the measure of temperature. Rankine scale uses a degree interval equivalent to that of Fahrenheit. Thus, a one-degree Rankine is equivalent to a one degree Fahrenheit. However, the absolute zero of the Rankine is zero, which is not the case with the Fahrenheit. On the other hand, Celsius has the same relationship of the degree difference with Kelvin just like the Fahrenheit and the Rankine. However, the absolute zero of the Kelvin is zero degree Kelvin while that of Celsius is 25 degree Celsius (Beard & Carvel 2005, p.43). Reference List Allen, E. and Iano, J 2000. Fundamentals of Building Construction Materials & Methods. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Beard, A. and Carvel, R 2005. The handbook of tunnel fire safety. Madrid: Thomas Telford. Brinkhuizen, D 2010. Birds in Archaeology: Proceedings of the 6th Meeting of the Icaz Bird Working Group in Groningen (23.8 - 27.8.2008). New York: Barkhuis. Craighead, G 2009. High-Rise Security and Fire Life Safety. London: Butterworth Heinemann. Fritz, RA 2000. Tools of the trade: firefighting hand tools and their use. Madrid: PennWell Books. Maevski, IY 2011. Design Fires in Road Tunnels. Washington: Transportation Research Board. Nicolson, A 2009. Restoration: the rebuilding of Windsor Castle. New York: Michael Joseph in association with the Royal Collection. Paulino, J M 2008. The Fraud of the Fraud: Have You Been Taken for a Ride? New York: Facts Movement. Porter, D., & Prince, D. 2010. Frommer's England 2011: With Wales. New York: John Wiley & Sons. United States. 2007. Transportation security: Making transportation tunnels safe and secure, Volume 12. New York: Transportation Research Board. Read More