Fire and Built Environment for 30-Storey Block, Multi-Occupied Premise in London - Report Example

Reading Header: FIRE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT FOR 30-STOREY BLOCK, MULTI-OCCUPIED PREMISE IN LONDON Your institution: Course name: Course instructor: March 14, 2010 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS Building construction refer to a process of addition of structure to real property and vast majority of this constructions are renovations projects like room addition with house owner acting as laborer, paymaster and designer for the whole project. Building construction projects normally have some elements in common like financial, design and legal matters which should be observed to avoid reaching undesirable ends like cost overturns, collapse, and litigation problems. Therefore experienced personnel should be brought on board to make detailed plans and maintain careful overview to ensure positive success during project implementation. Construction of buildings can be procured publicly or privately to utilize various delivery methodologies including negotiated prices, hard bid, traditional, design and build, design/ built bridging, management contracting, and construction management at risk. All these methods are required to observe the requirements for fire safety in the constructions (Quintiere, 1998). Construction of residential buildings technologies, resources and practices must conform to local building authorities’ codes and regulations of practice and the materials are readily available, since its locality dictates the materials of construction to be used like stone versus bricks or timber. The materials themselves are required by law to conform to acceptable standards of fire safety and protection. The cost per square meter for houses also vary based on conditions of the site, regulations locally, economies of scale and the availability of skilled man power and also careful planning is paramount to reduce the massive wastes that might be generated. The method which is most popular for construction of residential homes in USA is the wood framed buildings though other methods and technologies have emerged with the advent of efficiency codes that would reduce fire incidences and reconstruction wastes while increasing performance (Chitty, & Fraser-Mitchell, 2003). Fire safety engineering foundation Construction according to fire safety engineering fields, refer to a process consisting of infrastructure assembling in order to check on fire outbreaks and can be far from being a solitary action. Large scale fire safety engineering constructions involve a lot of multi-tasking and managed by project manager supervised by fire engineer, project architect, construction engineer. Effective planning is vital for the successful completion of the project hence those involved in the design and execution of the construction infrastructure should consider fire safety and environmental impact of the project, budgeting, scheduling successfully, site safety, materials availability, public inconvenience, logistics, construction delays, preparation of tender documents (Quintiere, 1998). There are three types of fire safety construction projects in general and involve the building construction, industrial constructions and heavy constructions. Each construction type demands a team that is unique to help plan, construct, design, and in project maintenance. Fire safety industrial construction, on the other hand is relatively small portion of the whole construction industry and their owners are normally large, profit-oriented industrial companies and usually found in petroleum, medicine, chemical, manufacturing and power generation projects. Highly specialized expertise are required in this areas to help in planning, design and project construction for example building in highway/heavy construction require team of experts to ensure project is successfully executed that would minimize chances of catching fire. Fire safety construction projects normally require translation designs into reality from computer or paper in the modern industrialized world. A design team that is formal needs to be assembled in order to help plan the physical proceedings and also help in integration with the other parts. These designs normally consist of specifications and drawings that are prepared by a team involving interior designers, architects, civil engineers, surveyors, quantity/cost engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers and mechanical engineers. This design team is normally employed by property owner on contract basis. Once the design is accomplished under this design system, construction companies are then asked to make bids for the job/work based either on drawings basis and bill of quantities that have been provided by quantity/cost surveyors or on design directly and then the property owner would only award contract to lowest bidder (Chitty, & Fraser-Mitchell, 2003). Financial advice for fire safety Several Fire safety construction projects may suffer from financial problems that are preventable caused by underbids whereby they ask for too little to complete a project hence result in cash flow problems when present amount of funds cannot cover current costs for materials and labour. Fraud is also another problem in construction fields hence financial planning is vital to ensure adequate contingency plans and safeguards are put in place before commencement of the project in order to ensure that the plan is properly executed during the project lifecycle. Accountants, mortgage bankers and quantity/cost engineers are participants in creation of an overall financial management plan used in construction building projects. The mortgage banker act as source of finance while accountant study expected flow of funds over project life and also monitors payouts throughout the process, while cost engineers on the other hand apply expertise in order to relate materials and work that are going to be involved to attain proper valuation. This would minimize chances of cost overruns occasioned by change in orders resulting in large cost increases (Quintiere, 2006). Legal considerations for fire safety construction Fire safety construction projects are supposed to fit into the existing legal framework that is governing the property and include governmental regulations regarding the use of the property and the obligations that are created during project implementation process. The construction project should adhere to building code and zoning demands since violation of these requirements might not benefit the owner. Several legal requirements originate from considerations of malum in se, that is the desire to avoid indisputably bad things like explosions and collapses while other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum referring to things which are a matter of expectation and custom for example the restricting residential houses to residential district while businesses are isolated to a business district (Quincy, 2002). Fire safety construction projects is therefore a complex contracts net and other related legal obligations which must be analyzed separately hence a contract refer to exchange of set of obligations between two parties, hence should be taken seriously since delays costs money and can be very expensive in matters of bottlenecks in the project occasioned by poorly drafted contracts that might lead to collapse and confusion. Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must not only be structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must accommodate the need for building the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. The legal structure must integrate the design into the surrounding legal framework, and enforces the financial consequences of the construction process. Procurement This describes merger of activities that client undertakes in order to obtain the building and there are several methods of procurement in Fire safety construction projects. The three most common include the design and build method, management contracting and the traditional design-bid-build method. Traditional The traditional method is the most common and is well established and recognized whereby the fire engineer/architect acts as the coordinator of the project. The role of this manager is to design works, specifications preparation, construction drawings production, and contract administration, work tendering and works management to completion from inception of Fire safety construction projects to ensure that danger is averted. Design and build The design and build strategy on the other hand has become common in recent past and entails whole completed package involving fittings, fixtures, and equipment to produce accomplished wholly operational building and in some cases can include site finding, funds arrangements, and application for the necessary statutory consents. The owner only produces requirements lists for the project that present overall view of the goals of the project and then he hires the contractor or consortium of several contractors. This contrast design-bid-build contract in that the project is designed completely by owner and then places it on bid before it’s accomplished. Procurement systems Management Management procurement systems refer to arrangements whereby the client undertakes active role in process of procurement through entering into separate contracts with designers like engineers, architects, trade contractors and construction managers. He takes on role of contract while construction managers provide management role actively in the separate contracts trades and also ensuring that they all work together effectively and smoothly. This system often help speed up processes of procurement while at same time allowing client greater flexibility in variation design during the entire project like ability in separate responsibilities of contractual obligations, appointment of work contractors and provision of increased control of client. Authority having jurisdiction This is governmental agencies which helps regulate processes of construction during planning of construction. Planning and zoning boards of Authority with jurisdiction normally review the compliance overly of the proposed construction together with the municipal construction plans and regulations governing zoning. Detailed architectural/structural and civil plans have to be submitted once the construction proposed is approved, to municipal construction department/public works department in order for compliance to be determined in accordance with the construction/building codes and also compliance with the infrastructure that are already existing. Fire departments of municipals would also have to review plans for compliance with ordinances of fire-safety and regulations. Contractors are required typically to notify utility companies in order to ensure utility lines underground are marked before the foundation is dug so that likelihood of damage to existing sewerage, water, electricity, phone and other cable facilities are lessened which might cause hazardous situations and outages. The municipal construction inspector should inspect constructions/buildings from time to time, during construction in order to ensure that the process adheres to plans approved and the local code of construction. An occupancy permit should be issued once the construction is complete and after final inspection has been passed, while at same time a functional building needs to remain in compliance with fire codes enforced by local fire department. Any changes that might be made affecting use, safety, structural integrity, fire protection details, expansion etc normally require approval by AHJ for review as concerns the code of construction (Building Regulations, 2007). Construction materials and techniques The products of construction should be assessed adequately to make sure they would provide homes with affordability, safety, environmental performance, energy efficiency, durability and quality, energy efficiency etc. these materials include autoclaved aerated concrete floor finishes, concrete admixtures, fly ash concrete, fibrous concrete reinforcement, concrete footing and pier forms, concrete aggregate substitutes, spray-applied concrete walls, split-face concrete block, precast concrete passive solar home, masonry and concrete adhesives, insulating concrete forms, formwork for ventilated concrete slabs. Techniques that can be used to construct self-build include timber frame building which are quicker and cheaper during construction as compared to conventional builds hence are more advantageous. They can last more that eighty years should they be properly build and maintained. The disadvantage of this is that they are a bit noisier compared to traditional cavity walls since masonry cavity wall normally provide better insulation of sound due to its more mass. Block and Brick Construction This is a traditional method utilized by large majority of commercial developers and this as the advantage that it can last for more than 100 years. They also have good insulators properties and are quieter compared to wooden ones while on the downside, brick and block frames take long to construct and are expensive compared to quicker builds like wooden. Kit houses The kit houses on the other hand are advantageous in that they are quick to construct hence reduces costs of labor and material wastages including theft in construction sites. The disadvantage on the other hand is that kit builds are likely to expose occupants to environmental risks and weather since much fabrication is accomplished in the factories. The kit should be of high quality since cheaper ones might mean that bits might not fit together hence become expensive in the long haul. Steel Framing This is not very common in construction of residential homes though popular in commercial constructions. Its benefits include reduced dry out periods, faster builds and flexibility in planning the project. The con is that they are uncommon at present hence lenders have issues when issuing funds against them. Log Cabins These can be easy and quick in assembling and the fit is always perfect while seals are strong and tight hence making them attractive propositions to self builders. Insulation as far as they are concerned is also good though it’s difficult to obtain the right kit. FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING Fire protection engineers apply science and technology to protect people and property from fire accidents. When preparing designs for new buildings or renovations of the existing buildings, the plan for fire protection is developed by these engineers. Fire protection engineering has developed substantially over the last several centuries. Earlier, the use of fire protection engineering was meant to prevent the destruction of entire cities which was called conflagrations. Before 1900s, the basic objective of fire protection engineering was to control a fire in its original building. This objective was revised to controlling a fire in its original room as the fire protection engineering advanced (Charters & Evans, 2003). Fire protection engineering goes through a series of stages before it can really be described as effective. They are described below. Stage 1: Professional Definition Fire protection engineering is the use of science and engineering concepts to protect people and their environment from destructive fire, which includes: fire hazards analysis fire damage mitigation by proper design, construction, arrangement, and use of buildings structures, materials, industrial processes, and transportation design the design, installation and maintenance of fire detection and controlling and communication systems, and Post/fire investigation and analysis. A fire protection engineer by education, training, and experience: is well versed with the types and characteristics of fire and the related chemicals and products of combustion understands how fires originate, spread within and outside of buildings/structures, and can be detected, controlled, and/or extinguished, and is able to anticipate the behavior of materials, structures, machines, apparatus, and processes as related to the protection of life and property from fire. Stage 2: Professional Role in 'Whole Building' Design ‘Whole building design’ is the concept taken by fire protection engineers. Fire protection engineers take individual design systems that are mechanical, architectural or structural. These systems are coordinated into a comprehensive, fire and life safety strategy. There are benefits in involving fire protection engineers in a design at the earliest stages of planning. These benefits include More and elaborate design flexibility Creativity and innovation in design, construction, and materials Better fire safety Optimization of cost/benefit On the other hand, if a fire protection engineer is not involved in the project team until after malfunctions are identified, delays can result as the fire protection engineer analyzes the problem and develops solutions. At this stage it will be difficult to change the design and the flexibility available for the team members from other disciplines would be restrictive. This is because the some portions of the project will have been completed and decisions approved. This is particularly true in cases where fire protection problems are not identified until plans are submitted for regulatory approval. Additionally, security related provisions designed into a building should not diminish fire safety provisions to occupants. For example; ensure that access control to a building does not also make it more difficult to quickly exit a building in the event of a fire or similar emergency. Stage 3: Strategies for Achieving "Whole Building" Design Objectives Prescriptive codes and standards are largely applied by fire protection engineers in most projects. Prescriptive codes and standards identify, in very specific terms, exactly how individual fire protection systems are to be designed, installed, tested, and maintained. Prescriptive codes and standards are beneficial in that they are easy to apply and enforce. In addition, buildings designed to prescriptive codes and standards have a good history of performance in fires. However, they do not result in similar levels of safety or cost-benefit.. Fire safety from a “whole building” perspective can be looked at by a tool known as "performance-based design”. This is an engineering approach to fire protection based on established fire safety goals and objectives, analysis of fire scenarios, and numerical assessment of design alternatives. Fire safety goals for a building are identified first when using performance-based designs. These goals include safety of lives, protection of property, mission continuity, and protection of environmental. These goals are then refined into numerical measures of building performance through engineering analysis and consultation with building stakeholders, such as the building owner and code and standards enforcement officials. Then, fire scenarios are established. Fire scenarios are identification and descriptions of the types of fires from which the building is intended to provide protection. The next stage is the selection of design strategies. The kinds of fire protection strategies that are applied in performance-based design are the same to those that are used when applying prescriptive codes and standards, such as detection, suppression, or fire endurance. After fire protection strategies are developed, they are evaluated using engineering tools and models to determine whether the fire safety goals are met for each of the fire scenarios. The entire building will not be designed on a performance basis in most cases. Much of the building will be designed using prescriptive codes, and for relatively simple buildings, all of the building will likely be designed using prescriptive codes. It also ensures that the fire performance of the whole building will be considered as more than a combination of single systems. Stage 4: Relationship between Building Systems and Relevant Codes and Standards Fire protection engineers have been designing the following types of systems for fire protection in building construction: Standpipes Fire sprinklers Fire detection and alarm Special hazards systems, such as clean agents, water mist, or CO² Smoke management Additionally, fire protection engineers regularly work with other design professionals in the design of the following systems: Structural fire resistance Fire rated construction Means of outlet Stage 5: Interaction with Other Disciplines Designing a building from a 'whole building' approach requires a fire protection engineer to direct the different kinds of fire protection that are designed into buildings including coordination of: sprinkler system zoning with fire alarm system zoning sprinkler system water flow and tamper switches with the fire alarm system fire alarm and outlet system with building security smoke control systems with detection and HVAC system designs fire separations with architectural designs penetrations of fire assemblies with electrical and mechanical designs (e.g. wiring penetrations , piping, and ductwork) Means of egress with architectural designs. SMOKE MOVEMENT CONTROL IN BUILDINGS Suggestion has it that automatic shutdown of systems of mechanical ventilations as smoke is detected is superfluous and not necessary since other agents are responsible in continual transport of smoke throughout constructions as systems of ventilations have been shut down. Hence to evaluate this, analysis has it that relative smoke concentrations in entire construction arises due to stack effect, buoyancy of combustion gases and wind effects including those arising from mechanical ventilation. This considers 10-story construction representative and can also be extended to buildings of different areas and heights. The shut down of mechanical ventilation might not curb smoke contamination of non-fire floors and is also preferable to leave systems of ventilation running unless the system is designed specifically for management of smoke. High-storied constructions are normally influenced by ambient wind hence study that concerns behavior of fire in high-rise compartments and especially those in wind environment is required in order to explore effective techniques that can be used to evaluate compartment fire smoke movement and control. Hence analysis found that there exists critical wind velocity above which direction of movement of smoke is dominated by wind and not by buoyancy according to studies about smoke flowing temperature and direction of ventilation- controlled fire in a two-vent compartment, whenever ambient wind blows to vent at higher altitude. The study concludes that ambient wind has a complex influence on temperature of the smoke in the compartment and that wind speed exceeds another critical value, that only one steady state appears in smoke temperature rising curve, otherwise three steady states might appear, in that heat transfer through partition walls has a great control on the second decisive wind momentum (Shields & Silcock, 1993). There exist long histories that concerns wind-related problems that may arise diverse components of constructions. The self-motivated response to wind remains to-day a fundamental and multifaceted consideration in the design of long span/period constructions. While it has already received most attention, other high-storied constructions still remain prone to wind-induced movement/motion and have caused severe tribulations. The truss members, hangers, and towers are discussed and examples have been experienced while solutions have also been examined and presented. A number of aerodynamic troubles/problems are more relentless/ severe during erection than for the completed construction. This study and appraisals concludes that smoke movement in the building is paramount to the occupation of the building since its affected by wind and other agents. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES AND CARBON MANAGEMENT IN BUILDINGS: ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES This element involve the production of thermal energy conversion, energy principal fuels conversion, thermal energy production, mechanical to thermal energy conversion, power plant operation environmental effects, chemical and thermal energy conversion to electricity , heating and cooling equipments, storage of thermal energy for cooling and heating. Sustainable Built Environment include elements such as energy consumption and demands by building services and types, thermal comfort and environmental conditions theories, introduction to use of energy like for lighting systems, basics of heat transfers, condensation in construction buildings, thermal response of buildings, solar radiation, ventilation, fundamental principles of forced, natural, and hybrid systems of ventilation designs, air conditioning and design etc. The Environmental Legislation: Environmental and Energy Audit and Review entail elements like hands-on environmental audit and review, environmental regulations, management systems of the environment, energy management and audit, establishment a targeting and monitoring scheme. What should be analyzed also is the Environmental Risk and Impact and Assessment which involve elements involving principles of ERA and EIA, methodologies and approaches, quality and standardization, limitations issues in ERA, tools and resources for conducting ERA and EIA, matching of models of ERA to environmental specific risk scenarios. Development, implementation and maintenance of carbon strategies for diverse, large corporation is complicated hence company needs to dedicate sector manager to offer strategies and support for implementation to reduce carbon emissions in new constructions. Owners of new constructions should enlist roles of private analysts to help in initial carbon plan development review, motivation of staff/occupants, set targets and provide management with implications of regulations, review of equipment and plant, putting right controls and metering, maximize efficiency of procedures and operations, engage stakeholders, investing in renewable energy, developing new services, and products. The owner of construction should formulate various strategies and measures to speed up development of systems that are energy efficient and technologies to accelerate renewable energy utilization should be instituted. This would reduce costs including the total green-house gas emissions. The owners should employ use of primary energy sources which are renewable like electricity, waste and combustible renewable. The use of wind power is very sustainable though implementation costs is still prohibiting. Hence there is need for urgency in analyzing strategy issues of sustainable energy and should be given definition which should embrace strategic measures, objectives, and management. It should also be divided into two primary major categories entailing renewable energy strategies and energy efficiency strategies. FIRE EXTINGUISHERS Fires have been classified into five general categories by the National Fire Protection Association of the United States of America. These categories are: Class A- is fires of ordinary materials like burning papers, cardboards, plastic, lubber etc. Class B- are fires involving flammable and combustion liquids like gasoline kerosene and common organic solvents used in labs Class C- are fires involving energized electrical equipment, such as switches, electrical appliances, switches, panel boxes, power tools etc. Water cannot be used to extinguish fires of this class because of the risk of electrical shock unless a specialized water mist extinguisher is used. Class D- is fires involving combustible metals, such as titanium magnesium, pyrophoric organ metallic as well as potassium and sodium. Class E- these involve kitchen fires. This class was added in 1998 to the NFPA portable extinguishers Standard 10 in 1998. Here are some typical extinguishers and their uses: Water extinguishers - are suitable for class A (paper, wood etc.) fires, but not suitable for class B, C and D fires such as burning liquids, electrical fires or reactive metal fires. If water is used in these cases, the flames will be spread and the hazard made greater. On the other hand water mist extinguishers are suitable for class A and C. Dry chemical extinguishers- are suitable for class ABC or class BC fires and are best all around choice for common fire situations. They are more advantageous than carbon dioxide and "clean agent" extinguishers in that they form a blanket of non-flammable material on the extinguished material which reduces the likelihood of reigniting. They also make an awful mess - but if the choice is a fire or a mess, better the mess. There are two kinds of dry chemical extinguishers: Type BC- fire extinguishers contain potassium/ sodium bicarbonate. Type ABC- fire extinguishers contain ammonium phosphate. Dry chemical extinguishers can be rather corrosive to metals like aluminum and are abrasive. ABC extinguishers are much more corrosive than BC extinguishers because of ammonium phosphate agent which undergo a process called hydrolysis to form phosphoric acid. Hence dry chemical ABC extinguishers are discouraged from being utilized for electronics or aircraft like MRI scanners, computers, and scientific instruments. This is because they can cause extensive corrosion damage to airplane structure, electronic equipment and electrical systems, hence they should only be used for airplane firefighting should there be no other alternative extinguisher available and there would be eminent danger to personnel and property (Shields & Silcock, 1993). CO2 (carbon dioxide) extinguishers- these are for class B and C fires. They don't extinguish properly on class A fires because the materials usually reignite. The advantage of CO2 extinguishers over dry chemical is that they leave behind no harmful residue. This makes CO2 extinguishers/ FE-36/ Halotron I a better choice in cases of electrical fires that involve delicate instruments like computers. It’s however a bad choice for fires on metals that are flammable like Grignard reagents, sodium metals and alkyllithiums since CO2 reacts with these agent materials hence its disapproved for class D fire. CO2 extinguishers don’t have pressure gauges since it’s a condensable gas hence pressure does not reveal how much agent still remains in the cylinder, but instead, extinguisher should have empty/tare weight stamped on it and to determine the amount of CO2 remaining in the cylinder extinguisher, subtract the current weight from the tare weight. Metal/Sand Extinguishers are for flammable metals i.e. class D fires). They work by smothering the fire. The most commonly used extinguishing agent in this class is sodium chloride, but there are a variety of other options. One should have an approved class D unit should one is working with flammable metals and include the following extinguishing units: Sodium Chloride/NaCl- which works perfect for metal fires that involve sodium, magnesium, potassium, potassium/sodium alloys, powdered aluminum, uranium spills and depth? Heat from these fires cause agent to cake hence forming a crust that would dissipate heat by excluding fire. Cu metal/Powdered copper metal- is preferred for fires that involve lithium and its alloys and is developed in conjunction with US Navy and is the only extinguisher that clings to a vertical surface hence making it preferred material on flowing and three dimensional fires. Graphite-based powders- are designed for utilization on fires on lithium and it can also be effective on fires that involve high-melting metals like titanium, and zirconium. The specially-designed sodium bicarbonate-based extinguishing dry agents on the other hand can also suppress fires with most pyrophoric liquids, metal alkyls which ignite on contact with air like triethylaluminum, though they do not rely on standard BC extinguisher for this role. Agents based on sodium carbonate dry powders can also be used with most Class D fires that involve potassium, sodium, or potassium/sodium alloys hence this agent is recommended in places where stress corrosion of stainless steel have to be kept to an absolute minimum. Water mist extinguishers- these are ideal for Class A fires where a potential Class C hazard exists and unlike ordinary water extinguisher, misting nozzle would provide safety from electric shocks and reduces scattering of burning materials hence its one of the best alternative choices for protection of books, hospital environment, clean room facilities, documents. Water mist extinguishers are better choices in non-magnetic versions like for NMR and MRI facilities and also for deployment on mine sweepers (Shields & Silcock, 1993). Recommendation Since most of the fire extinguishers have both positive and negative sides, I would recommend that for this 30-storey block, multi-occupied premise, containing hotels and offices in London, to adopt a variety of these agents since fire can be caused by a variety of causes ranging from hotel to office agents. Water mist extinguishers are recommended for protection of books and clean room facilities while water extinguishers are able vital to curb fires cause by papers in offices. References Quintiere, J. G. (1998). Principles of fire behaviour. Delmar Publishers, Albany, New York. Chitty, R. & Fraser-Mitchell, J., (2003), Fire Safety Engineering: a reference guide. 2nd Ed. BRE. Quintiere, J. G. (2006). Fundamentals of fire phenomena. Wiley, Chichester. Quincy MA. (2002), SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering , 3rd ed., NFPA. Building Regulations (2007): Part B - Fire Safety; Document J - Combustion Appliances and Fuel Storage, 2007 Approved UK Buildings Regulations, HM Government Document Reproduction, Logicworks Ltd (http://www.building-regulation.org). LPCB and BRE Certification Red Books. (2006). Vol. 1: List of Approved Fire and Security products and Services. Vol. 2: Directory of Listed companies, Construction products, Environmental profiles ad Assessments. LPCB, BRE (http://www.redbooklive.com). Charters, D. & Evans, G. (2003). Performance - Based Fire Engineering – SOLAS Regulation 11-2/17. Lloyds Register, Workshop on Fire Science and Fire Investigation, London. International Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, Kyoto 1997). (1998). United Nations. Handbook for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. (2006). United Nations Environmental Programme, Ozone Secretariat (http://ozone.unep.org). Drysdale, D. D. (1999). An introduction to fire dynamics. 2nd ed., Wiley, Chichester, 1999. Shields, T. J., and Silcock, G. W. H. (1993). Buildings and Fires. Longman Scientific and Technical, London. Read More