Recruitment and Selection of Warehouse Manager for Best Pearls - Literature review Example

UNIVERSITY NAME SUPERINTENDENTS’ ROLE AS CHANGE FACILITATORS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD LITERACY IN SCHOOLS STUDENT NAME COURSE NAME & REG. NUMBER SUPERVISOR SUBMISSION DATE HOW U.S. SUPERINTENDENTS WITH LONGEVITY PERCEIVE THEIR LEADERSHIP ROLE AS CHANGE FACILITATORS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD LITERACY IN THEIR EDUCATIONAL DISTRICTS 1.0. Background of the Study In U.S., school reform has been a focus for many years. As in many states, the position of superintendent in schools has evolved over the years .High-stakes testing and accountability evolved into systemic reform measures. The public began to demand educational reform and change. In response, researchers began to examine the approaches to leadership taken by superintendents and the ways they act as change agents. The focus of superintendent roles in the 1950 and 1960 eras moved from that of a managerial role to more of a leadership role. Educators delved into a demanding task of establishing the relationship between leadership and student achievement. The public began to criticize public education and consequently the work of the superintendent. Researchers have established that school leadership and governance have a direct impact on the academic performance of the students. Gradually an array of research-established knowledge emerged. In regards to Calhoun, K. (2004).the former top-down model of the superintendency was no longer wanted. Superintendents must work with the people in collaboration rather than make demands. President George W. Bush signed into law the federal “No Child Left Behind” legislation (NCLB). The law attempted to create a level playing field for all children in public schools, by improving the accountability for results: emphasizing local control and flexibility, which helped to expand parental choice, and rewarding effective and successful programs. Carrying out the NCLB mandate to improve student achievement in public schools is critical in the role of school districts. Superintendents were perceived as agents of needed change transforming their district by raising student achievement for all students. Researchers have been able to describe the roles played by the superintendents in effecting curricular and instructional changes (Yelland, Nicola, Maidenhead , 2008). District-level superintendents have administrative responsibilities and executive oversight with the schools, students, and educational services in their localities. Their responsibilities include assuring the fiscal viability of the district, keeping the district in compliance with government regulations, hiring and supervising building-level administrators, maintaining good public relations within the community, and working with district trustees. More importantly, superintendents are educational leaders whose first responsibility is the education of the pupils in their schools. They are ultimately responsible for assuring the implementation of sound educational practices which lead to measurable student achievement. Superintendents need to engage in efforts to effect changes in curriculum and instruction that improve student outcomes. 2.0. Significance of the study According to Reeves (2002), it is part of a superintendent’s responsibility to look after the day-to-day execution of all policy matters in learning institutions as required by local, state, and federal educational mandates. This means that even now the most basic role of a superintendent is daily administration of the school district. This can range from overseeing the day-to-day operations of the district to attending to the administrative needs of the district. Helping the district implement the proposed changes and reforms is part of the work undertaken by the superintendents. It is paramount for superintendents to be well versed in their own perceptions in relation to how they implement, instill, and sustain changes in the educational sector .This investigation seeks to explore the various perceptions that superintendents have in relation to their contribution toward the implementation of changes in the educational institutions. Becoming conscious of and understanding the ways they view their roles as change agents may help superintendents further refine their leadership in ways the enhance student achievement. Superintendents have many responsibilities and duties under multiple mandates coming from the local, state, and federal levels. Examples include the “No Child Left Behind” act and the “Race to the Top” programs that have been implemented on top of previous state and local mandates. Literature Review Several studies have been conducted in relation to how school stakeholders perceive the role played by the superintendents in enhancing change and enhancing students’ achievements in academics. There is a notable information gap in relation to how the superintendents themselves perceive their place and role as change agents in the academics. Studies display a number of techniques and patterns in superintendents’ actions as they attempt to improve the educational systems in which they operate. The acquired knowledge from this study will derive from patterns that emerge in interviews eliciting superintendent perceptions of how they effect change; these perceptions may be of help to other superintendents facing similar challenges as they attempt to improve teaching and learning in their districts. 2.1. Superintendent Responsibilities The superintendent’s ultimate role as an educational leader is to oversee the academic success of all students in his or her district (Waters & Marzano, 2006; Hanks, 2010; Bealer, 2010; Melton, 2009). Superintendents realize that in order for them to accomplish this primary objective, their responsibility is to attend to the development of all aspects of the district that contribute to student learning. In order to forge ahead in making vital decisions relative to continuous improvement, they need to know about school district, processes, and organizational change. Additionally, superintendents focus their efforts on leadership within their districts while holding high performance expectations for every teacher and principal. Some of the superintendents’ primary duties include: system improvement, resources for decision making and moral purpose. System improvement is the key driver and motivator for superintendents is the desire to see all the students succeed (Kowalski, 2005). Superintendents hold high expectations for student achievement and development in many ways. A commonality among some of the best-performing superintendents is that they define success in terms of preparing children for the future life beyond their systems (Willower & Fraser, 2002). Excellent superintendents define achievement in relation to long-term goals and do not focus all their energy on state tests; they perceive their school districts as multipart systems; and they use both formal and informal data to examine how those systems are working (Willower & Fraser, 2002). Superintendents perceive the improvement process as a continuous process or effort and therefore make ongoing adjustments to pave way for change. Once superintendents discover a component of their system that does not sufficiently prepare the students for the post-secondary life, action is taken to revise, restructure, and refine a program and/or process to ensure student success. High-performing superintendents have been noted to have high expectations for their districts, administration, and staff. According to Waters and Marzano (2006), school and district leadership is crucial in determining the quality of student learning. Stakeholders expect that superintendents be well versed in curriculum and instruction and act as reformers of higher student performance. Because many superintendents have goals of ensuring that students succeed in academics, the result-oriented leaders place very high expectations on the principals, and the principals have the duty to work in harmony with the other supporting staff to make sure that they are able to adjust according to the superintendent’s projections (Willower & Fraser, 2002). 2.2. Superintendents School Involvement Superintendents believe that when the teachers exercise the best practices in the instructional foundation, they set up a good foundation for the success of the students (Smith & Andrews, 1989). In an accountability process, superintendents look at several themes of improvement and figure out robust approaches to professional development. The superintendents are involved in schools in two ways: curriculum, instruction, and assessment and with professional development. Oversight of curriculum, instruction, and learning is a major part of the superintendent’s responsibility (Hoyle, Bjork, Collier, & Glass, 2005). Leaders make sure that the curriculum assessments and instructions are founded on valid research. Instructional leadership is a major indicator of superintendents’ performance (Chance & Bjork, 2004; Bredeson & Kose, 2007). Findings from a study conducted by Shannon and Bylsma (2004) indicate that curriculum, instruction, and data-driven decision making were of utmost importance. Successful superintendents often monitor the quality of instruction offered in the school environment by monitoring student progress, using observation, and mandating newer principal evaluations. The research on the principal’s ability to impact student achievement is wide. The superintendent has the ability to put pressure on various educators in key positions to raise expectations and move forward together (Waters & Marzano, 2006). In order to meet the NCLB mandates and promote change and reform, superintendents must research the latest information on student learning and teaching. Superintendents must use the data in meetings with administrative staff to align reform and changes in curriculum and instruction. Accountability and student achievement requirements have demanded an increase in superintendent professional development. (Fullan, 2005; Fielder, 2005) Certain superintendent leadership behaviors were identified in the literature as positively correlated with student achievement (Waters & Marzano, 2006; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Kowalski, T. J. (2004). did extensive research in education reform. He discusses the concept of “teacher as learner”. Fullan indicates that administrators and systems must support the ongoing learning of teachers. Fullan believes that teachers must lead education reform and are a vital component in improvement. 2.3. Evolving Roles of Superintendents Fullan (2003) stated that a top quality education system is essential in today’s world. Failure is not an option for today’s children. The superintendent position has evolved historically from minor managerial positions to principal duties (Cuban, 1976) to one that involves oversight of the school district and community (Waters & Marzano, 2006; Bjork et al., 2005). In the past, the principal role and the expectations of superintendent comprised management chores that did not directly affect the way students performed academically (Marzano, Pickering,& Pollock, 2001). With change in policy and restructuring of school management, superintendents are becoming increasingly important in the area of ensuring that students achieve excellence in academics (Wirt & Kirst, 2003). The states and the nation as a whole have become greatly interested in student performance. Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) have published a book to offer insights into effective school management titled Classroom Instruction that Works. In this book, the authors explore how the teaching practices should be guided through proper leadership in order to create an enabling environment necessary for the students to grasp the concepts being relayed through the teaching practice. The authors believe that good leadership begins at the top, from the districts, and trickles down to the classroom. In order for the leadership to garner any salient benefits to the students, the superintendents must have the right perception concerning their contribution towards academic achievements. The authors believe that superintendents must have intrinsic drive to empower them to spearhead the necessary changes for proper school management. Self-assessment by the superintendents is necessary in establishing whether they are following the right procedures or not. A similar book, titled School Leadership that Works and building on the same concept was written by Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005). This book helps to establish a foundation for the necessary principles to be implemented in school leadership. The authors probe into the changing roles and the daunting tasks of the superintendents in the modern educational environment. Some of the conventional roles played by superintendents include procuring, handling grievances, and managing public relations, amongst others. Their roles are gradually being bloated or modified to suit the growing needs of the academic institutions today. In order for the superintendent to remain relevant, he or she must be able to offer a clear focus on how teaching and learning should be directed to impact the students’ outcome positively. Such focus aligns the policy makers ‘expectations with the visions of the academic institutions, and ultimately, the overall objective of better performance is achieved (Fielder, R.2005). The educational reform agenda has elevated the performance bar for students, requiring the teachers, principal, and superintendents to improve their contributions towards increased academic performance. State-authorized assessments have become the yardstick through which the students’ academic reputation is gauged, and the superintendents must prove their competence through these high-stake tests. In order for the superintendents to steer change and bolster excellence in the district schools, they must be willing to assess themselves, their limitations, strengths, and opportunities in order to steer the schooling fraternity in the right direction. Superintendents can only change by understanding their perceptions and changing them to meet the dynamic educational needs Bredeson, P. W. & Kose, B. W. (2007.p. 15(5), 1-10). In regards to Cubberley, E. P. (2010).Many authors have suggested that the superintendent role is a very significant one requiring tremendous time, resources and commitment. The superintendent responsibility and role has vacillated over the last one hundred years. As time went by, superintendents began to use others to effect changes in the educational institutions. Often, the superintendents work through collaborative activities and establish rapport with all the stakeholders affiliated with the educational programs to make sure that changes are assimilated among the stakeholders. Superintendents are seen as the mediators who help to problem solve among the teachers, principals, and district administrators because they play a proactive role in instituting and managing change in educational institutions. 3.0. Technology Proficient of superintendents The level of development in the modern world has greatly improved especially with the increased rate of innovation and growing technology. Everyone in the modern world is impressed at how the level of technology is increasing so fast because they benefit from it in very many different ways. Superintendents are technologically savvy individuals who are exposed to relentless technological advancement (Hoyle, J. R., Bjork, L.G., Collier, B., & Glass, T. 2005).Superintendents have changed with the trends, and work becomes easier as they equip themselves with more technical knowledge and skills. Many superintendents are adapted to computer usage, emails, social networks, and the Internet. Through these skills the superintendents are able to conduct research and dispatch vital information to the necessary organs within the schooling environment. 4.0. Conclusion The review of the literature provides a dearth of information related to the role played by the superintendents in helping the students achieve their academic goals. There is a notable information gap in relation to how superintendents with longevity perceive their place and role as change agents. Superintendency has evolved historically and has become more complex and demanding. The superintendent has become more accountable to various stakeholders. The pressures of student achievement, finances, resources, school boards, legislation, and legalities have risen to a stressful level. Superintendents are searching for reform and change solutions to these massive edicts. District leaders could use the identified characteristics and leadership styles listed in this study to assist them with reform in their districts. Other educational leaders and legislators may use the findings to improve student learning and achievement. 5.0. Recommendation Leaders of change need to get out and collaborate for the purposes of promoting focus and developing the organizational capacity. Many authors believe that in order to achieve this, the leaders must give keen consideration to strategic planning necessary to enhance the learning and teaching practices. In this sense, the superintendents are perceived as strategists who plan, set goals, and monitor the implementation of the right strategies necessary for achieving those goals. Research conducted to delve into the New Jersey superintendents’ circles has been minimal. Researchers have not given a keen consideration to how superintendents with longevity perceive their roles as the ultimate change catalysts. Knowing how the superintendents with more than five years of experience perceive their roles as change agents helps the stakeholders to obtain a glimpse into the lives of superintendents, understand the dimensions of their work and roles, and offer the best available support to enact change. 6.0. References Bealer, D. (2010). Promoting Student Achievement: A case study of change actions employed by an Urban School Superintendent. (Doctoral Dissertation). USC Rossier School of Education. Bredeson, P. W. & Kose, B. W. (2007). Responding to the education reform agenda: A study of school superintendents’ instructional leadership. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 15(5), 1-10. Calhoun, K. (2004). Superintendent Change Leadership Strategies Associated with Successful Technology Integration in Public School Districts. La Verne, CA:University of La Verne. Cubberley, E. P. (2010). The history of education. Educational practice and progress c onsidered as a phase of the development and spread of western civilization. Houghlin and Mifflin. Fielder, R. (2005). ESAs and leadership development: History, research, and one agency’s experience. Perspectives: A Journal of Research and Opinions about Educational Service Agencies, 11, 1-12. Fullan, M. G. (2003). The moral imperative of school leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Houston, P.D. (2007). From custodian to conductor. School Administrator, 64(3), pp. 28-35. Hoyle, J. R., Bjork, L.G., Collier, B., & Glass, T. (eds.) (2005). The superintendent as CEO: Standards-based performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Kowalski, T. J. (2001). The future of local school governance: Implications for board members and superintendents. In C. Brunner and L. G. Björk (Eds.), The new superintendency (183–201). Oxford, UK: JAI, Elsevier Science. Kowalski, T. J. (2004). School public relations: A new agenda. In T.J. Kowalski (Ed.), Public relations in schools (3rd Ed.) (3-29), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, Prentice Hall. Kowalski, T. J. (2005). The school superintendent: Theory, practice, and cases. US: Sage Publishers. Yelland, Nicola, Maidenhead (2008).: Rethinking Learning in Early Childhood Education. McGraw-Hill International (UK) Ltd, Marzano, R. J. (2005). School Leadership That Works: From Research to Results. Alexandria, VA, USA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development, pp. 16-17.Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/waldenu/Doc?id=10089219&ppg=23 Melton, A. (2009). Leadership Matters: A mixed – methods study of South Carolina Reeves, D. B. (2002). The daily disciplines of leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Shannon, S., & Bylsma, P. (2004). Characteristics of improved school districts: Themes from Research. Retrieved from http://www.k12.wa.us/reserach/pubdocs/DistrictImprovementReport.doc U.S. Department of Education. (2002, November, 7). Fact sheet on the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Waters, T. J., & Marzano, R. J. (2006). School district leadership that works: The effect of superintendent leadership on student achievement. Denver, CO: Midcontinent Research for Education and Learning. Read More