The Necessity to Reform Physical Education in Australia - Literature review Example

Data Analysis and Collection Author’s Name Institutional affiliation Date tutor Introduction As the focus on physical educational reform becomes national due to the Australian Curriculum, attention has turned to educational researchers to provide answers to what are, increasingly, universal problems in the field of physical education. Physical Educational reform is often driven by health professional, marketing and quick fixes which has prompted Stronach and MacLure (2004) to remark (tongue in cheek) “current educational performance stands for future economic success” (p. xi). Although attention is squarely on educational researchers, a new ‘breed’ (if you will) of researcher has appeared who has embraced the educational ‘uncertainties’ we face in the new millennium and is engaging with the process and structure of research as well as the outcomes. These researchers “provide fresh insights” (Coombes, Danaher and Danaher, 2004) as they put issues of power and politics under the microscope and find innovative solutions to the ethical dilemmas of conducting educational research. The following paper will examine, two qualitative approaches to educational research located in the realm of Physical Education. This essay will examine the ‘uncertainties’ these researchers face in the areas of: 1. Sampling and selecting participants 2. Data collection techniques 3. Data analysis techniques 4. Reliability, validity, credibility and trustworthiness. Chapters in Review Teaching styles, methods or strategies are valued for what they claim they can achieve. Using a integrative framework, Brendan SueSee (2011) examined the teaching styles of Physical Educators in Queensland Secondary Schools. In this Chapter SueSee (2011) examined the way teachers taught and how they thought they taught, in relation to the Spectrum of Teaching (Mosston and Ashworth 2002). SueSee (2011), reported findings of research completed on the reported teaching styles of 110 teachers of Queensland Senior Physical Education and then observed 9 participants across three one hour lessons. Nikos Noumanis University of Birmingham, Martyn Standage University of Bath, presents a brief overview of empirical studies in school physical education (PE) that have employed self-determination theory (SDT) and, where relevant, proposes ideas for future research in this area. They reviewed research on teachers’ interpersonal style and its relation to students’ motivation. Standgate then goes on to discuss intervention studies aimed at optimizing teachers’ interactions with students. Finally they present an overview of findings suggesting that basic psychological needs and motivational regulations predict various cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes in PE. Sampling and selecting participants The building blocks for Quantitative research are variables as research relies on data collection. “Quantitative researchers require knowledge of a range of very precise methods and procedures, all of which are associated with specific terminology and a range of principles arising from probability theory” (Somekh 2005). Historically educational research was dominated by Quantitative data. This is no longer adequate because school settings have constants in their own data collection. The consequence of this was a rise in Qualitative research methods to answer many complex educational issues. Qualitative research can be broken down into the following types of research: 1. Phenomenology: is a form of Qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. 2. Ethnography: is the form of Qualitative research that focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. 3. Case study research: is a form of Qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account of one or more cases. 4. Grounded theory: is a Qualitative approach to generating and developing a theory form data that the researcher collects. 5. Historical research: research about events that occurred in the past. Implicit in SueSees (2011) writing is the notion that his sample was purposive as he selected Teachers of Senior Physical Education from a number of local schools, specifically to explore their opinions, on their own teaching qualities. A limitation of this study is the selection process of this group, which was chosen for close proximity to the researcher’s locale, providing only localized responses, risking skewing the results, which were not obtained from a wider geographic location (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2009). While Noumanis and Standage (2009) also used a purposive sample for their case study, their participants were drawn from only one site, one school in Northern Britain. The sample in this study was characterized by a community of “high obesity and a lack of sporting programs” (Noumanis and Standage, 2009), conducted this research as a response from the outcry of Physical Educators in England. One limitation of this sample is that the localized results may not be representative of the wider view of this population group. In both cases it may be difficult to generalize to larger populations but this is often not a requirement in qualitative studies and may not pose any concern. Primary and secondary data First hand accounts are considered a primary source of data (Wiersma, 2000) and are sought specifically for the research purpose (Hramiak, 2005). Both SueSee (2011) and Noumanis and Standage (2009) engaged with primary sources of data throughout their respective research where neither study seemed to rely on any secondary sources of data. SueSee (2011) used interviews as the main source of data and does not mention using any secondary sources. According to Ntoumanis (2001), secondary data are information compiled which researcher(s) may or may not have had any influence with regard to purposes as well as methods of collection and analysis, and the researcher(s) can use secondary data as supplementary data for corroboration or as primary data for the study being conducted (as cited in Danaher). Noumanis and Standage (2009), in collaboration with their school-based researchers, utilized material obtained from interviews, questionnaires, journals and photographs. Sue See, as lone researcher, has reduced the risk of introducing secondary data sources, whereas Noumanis and Standage may unwittingly rely on secondary data sources due to the high number of neophyte/apprentice researchers involved in their project. There is not enough information provided to determine whether Noumanis and Standage conducted any of the interviews or whether the school-based researchers conducted all of them. The reader may question the extent that co-collaborative research was undertaken in this study and must decide for him/herself whether the research was totally collaborative or if the school-based researchers were lead or coerced in some way during the research process, suggesting the data they collected could be considered a secondary source of data. Data collection techniques Both of these studies were conducted in the qualitative paradigm which according to Wiersma (2000) is researcher-dependent. Interviews were used in both studies as a method of data collection but SueSee used these as his main method of data collection, conducting independent lesson observations with 9 Senior Physical Edcation Teachers for local Schools. In contrast, Noumanis and Standage used a collaborative, multi-method approach to data collection in their study. They incorporated structured interviews, semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, journals and photographs. A unique aspect of their study was that they sought to “promote active involvement in every stage of the research process by those who are conventionally the focus of research” (Noumanis and Standage, 200, p. 5). Noumanis and Standage research almost includes some use of Mixed Methods. This is when the researcher can use both Quantitative and Qualitative research methods, procedures, and paradigm characteristics in a way that the resulting mixture or combination has complementary strengths and no overlapping weaknesses. A metaphor of this would be to construct one fish net out of several fish nets that have holes in them by laying them on top of one another. The "new" net will not have any holes in it. The use of multiple methods or approaches to research works the same way. SeeSue notes the increasing pressure on teachers from introducing the Australian Curriculum “to ensure that students are perceived to be achieving well according to the national Syllabus” (SueSee, p.12) which is an issue that impacts teachers’ lives. This was also an issue for Noumanis and Standage, as many teachers felt uncomfortable having their views recorded for fear of their thoughts being heard by others at the school, resulting in some participants refusing to sign consent forms. Confidentiality became an issue during their study as concerns arose, especially from teachers, about the storage and accessibility of the taped recordings that were stored in the principal’s office (Hymer, Whitehead & Huxtable, 2008). This needed to be addressed within the team to ensure accurate information and explanations were given to participants and appropriate measures carried out during the research. An important similarity in both studies was the ethical considerations undertaken by the researchers, who viewed these as a priority to the research process. In both studies, the researchers negotiated with research participants and collected all of qualitative data using semi-structured interviews by themselves and, to a degree, group structured interviews. Both studies involved prolonged engagement in collecting data, which could improve credibility (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Also, SueSee (2011) used written assignment as an additional source of data for triangulation, whereas it is very likely that participant observation, if included, were used to enhance credibility and dependability in the studies discussed by Moriarty (Lincoln & Guba). The merits of the chapters by Noumanis and Standage with respect to data collection techniques are that close attention was paid in order to regard study participants as intellectual and sensitive individuals and that efforts were made to ensure that the reality, actual or perceived, be represented as experienced by the participants (Taylor & Ntoumanis, 2007). The two studies make use of the living theory. Living education theory refers to use of values while trying to explain education influences how individuals live (Whitehead & Huxtable, 2010). The approach which makes use of living theory is a demonstration that a researcher in matters of education advocates for change in a positive way in the educational sector. The two researches therefore are similar in the fact that they apply similar approaches such as being concerned as a result of their values not being followed. They also tried to come up with solutions to the concerns. The two researches are similar in the sense that they used a qualitative method which made use of different method. Thee method applied included writing of journals in a reflective manner. The researchers also conducted interviews which were semi structured. The choice of the respondents was also critical and therefore the people sampled had to be representative of the whole population. The researchers interrogated the various instruments they made use of during the research and were thus able to gauge their fidelity. The different methods applied by the researchers made sure the final reports that were made represented the actual facts on the ground and therefore the proposals made would be quite perfect. Reliability, validity, credibility and trustworthiness For any research to be deemed reliable and to gain trust and also credibility there are certain prerequisites that must be present while carrying out such research. The two researches were carried out in a way which was not only systematic but also very rigorous. Research of such a scale requires the application of knowledge from various disciplines such as psychology and philosophy (Stronach & MacLure, 1997). In conducting research the various disciplines at work do overlap in many instances and it is important therefore that research which focuses on education ought to gain their interpretation in a given context and context vary widely. The researches carried entail a number of details which are a prerequisite to ensuring that the outcome of the research is acceptable and represents a high degree of fairness (Somekh, 2005). The two research projects were based on evidence which is observable and hence credible. The research projects involved rigorous analysis and the procedures applied were designed very well to ensure that the outcome is acceptable and accurate (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). The data intended for the project was collected first and hence providing the most credible data which can be collected for any research project which is primary data. The existing data or secondary data was used very sparingly and only to achieve certain objectives such as comparisons to see whether other researchers had come to similar or different conclusions in the course of their research work. In conducting the research projects, principles and generalizations were applied and also theories which come in handy in aiding the comprehension and predicting and also ensuring control of the outcome of the entire process (Somekh, 2005). The researchers employed in carrying out the research work were competent and familiar with the conduct of such research work. This means that the whole process of collecting, collating and analyzing data was conducted by people who are very competent and experienced in the area of research. The research projects were aimed at providing a solution to some problem within the field of physical education and were not carried just for the sake of it (Stronach & MacLure, 1997). The researchers took their time in making sure that the right procedures were applied so as to ensure that before the data could be utilized as correct, various methods had been utilized which ensured that such data was reliable. In carrying out the research projects, enough time was set aside to ensure that the objectives and questions sought to be answered were changed as the research project progressed so as to ensure that the outcome reflected the real intention of the researchers and that the proposed solutions are capable of being implemented. The whole processes of carrying out the researches were documented very well and this is very important (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). This is due to the fact that people looking at the way the research was conducted would be in a position to follow every step that was utilized in arriving at the conclusion. In terms of approach, the researchers made use the combination of methods. This is due to the fact that researching in the field of education necessarily involves other disciplines. It is therefore important that researchers should make use of a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods from the fields which are integral in education research. These disciplines include science, psychology and philosophy (Hramiak & Hudson, 2010). Issues of education tend to vary greatly and the logic to be applied as a matter of necessity must be different. It is therefore not necessary to confine oneself to a specific mode of conducting research but it is important that a researcher draws the various strengths to be found in the different methods. The researches conducted have therefore made use of the strengths of each of the two approaches enumerated above. Conclusion It has become necessary to reform physical education in Australia. This has meant that the stakeholders in the education system have placed a sharp focus on researchers whose focus is education so as to provide the necessary solutions. The reforms on the physical education are necessitated by a number of factors which include health of the students and needs to achieve better outcomes for the physical education. In carrying their research, the researchers face a number of challenges and uncertainties. In carrying out the research, the researchers will therefore be keen on ensuring that they try to minimize the impact of the limitations on the outcomes of their research. There are various processes which are involved in undertaking a proper research. After the researchers have established what their objectives are, they have to decide on the right methods of sampling and how the participants or respondents for the research projects ought to be picked. This is very critical since different methods of sampling are suited for specific situations. The participants selected should be reliable and also they ought to be representative of the whole population and only then that the responses can be taken as being representative of the whole population that is being researched on. The outcome of any process depends, to a large extent, on the quality of the inputs that are involved. Conducting a research on the education field needs to have people who are sufficiently versed with the dynamics of the education sector and who should also be skilled in data collection and analysis. Presentation of the research outcomes is important and hence the need for such data to be presented in a manner that the interested parties can easily grasp. This ensures that the appropriate steps are taken and in the end appropriate steps end up being taken. The choice of the kind of data to be used is also very important. A decision requires to be made whether researchers are to use primary data sources or secondary sources of data. In every research, primary data is usually more credible though it could be more expensive in terms of resources and time to obtain. The relevant stakeholders should be in a position to understand the whole process that was used in coming up with the research project. Therefore, documentation should cover everything which is involved in the research being carried out. References Chatzisarantis, N.L..& Hagger, M.S. (2009). Effects of an intervention based on self-determination theory on self-reported leisure-time physical activity participation. 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Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press. Stronach, I., & MacLure, M. (1997). Educational research undone: The postmodern embrace. Buckingham: Open University Press. Taylor, I. & Ntoumanis, N. (2007). Teacher motivational strategies and student self-determination in physical education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99: 747–60. Wiersma, W. (1975). Research methods in education: An introduction. Itasca, Ill: F.E. Peacock. Read More