Instructional Design and E-Learning in Australia - Report Example

Instructional Design and e-Learning in Australia Name of the Student Name of the University Instructional Design and e-Learning in Australia The past decades have seen much research and work go into the processes of learning and thinking and on the enhancement of proficiency. Much of this research has repercussions for the designing of learning environments and for the features of instructional practices. There are three aspects that are central to education and learning, namely curriculum, instruction and assessment. The word Curriculum implies the knowledge and skills in the specific subject matter or area of learning. Instruction means the methods of teaching and learning activities that are integrated to help students learn the content specified in the curriculum to the standards specified. Assessment refers to measuring the outcomes of education and the achievement of students with regard t the knowledge that has been imparted to them (Pellegrino, 2001). However studies show that present approaches to curriculum, instruction and assessment are founded on theories and models that are obsolete and that do not keep pace with modern-day knowledge of how people learn and master a subject. They have been designed based on implicit and limited concepts of learning and these concepts are highly outdated. Alignment of the three basic aspects of education and learning can be achieved better if they were all derived from a scientifically credible and shared knowledge about cognition and learning practices. Pellegrino also gives important principles about learning which have major implications on learning, teaching and learning environments. The first important principle suggests that students come to the learning environment with existing knowledge on the subject known as schema. This comprises of preconceptions about how the world functions. If people’s initial comprehension is not engaged they fail to grasp the new concepts and procedures that are taught. The second principle about learning suggests that in order to develop skill in a subject area, learners must first have a deep foundation of accurate knowledge, comprehend facts within the context of a conceptual framework and organize knowledge in ways that will assist retrieval and application. A key finding in this context is that organizing information into a conceptual framework leads to greater transfer. The third principle is that a metacognitive approach enables learners in to take control of their learning by setting out goals and monitoring progress. From the above knowledge and principles of learning, four major characteristics of effective learning environments have been identified. Firstly, effective learning environments are Knowledge Centered. This means that attention is given to what is taught, why it is taught and what mastery looks like. Secondly, effective learning environments are Learner Centered. Here, close attention is paid to knowledge, skills and attitudes of learners. This environment takes into account the preconceptions that are present among students regarding the subject and tries to gain a broader understanding of the learner. Thirdly, effective learning environments are Assessment Centered. Importance is given to frequent student assessment to ensure mastery and progress. Formative assessment is done at every stage of learning. Fourthly, effective learning environments are Community Centered. This refers to the development of norms for the classrooms which support core learning values. Tanner (1999), adds another important characteristic to existing knowledge. He says that effective learning environments do not use one single source of information, namely textbooks. He also adds that curriculum guides and lesson plans must not be formulated based on a single source. He says that a wide variety of source materials must be drawn upon to meet the comprehensive needs of students and for effecting teaching and learning. The workplace that will be taken as an example for this assignment is an organization that provides IT solutions. The organization is a large with branches all over the country. It primarily provides IT solutions to a large number of clients both within the country and outside the country. It employs over 5000 people from the various parts of the country in its branches for the various functions of the organization. The organization provides various forms of training for its new employees when they are recruited into the organization. Training is done in the various branches through daily classes during the first four weeks of appointment. At the end of training tests are conducted to ensure that all new entrants have gained the necessary skill and knowledge. It also gives continuous ongoing training to its existing employees to enable them to keep up with the technological developments in provision of IT solutions. The company trains existing employees in new languages that keep surfacing in IT to enable them to work according to client specifications. For this purpose classes are conducted for a few days a week for four weeks or more, as required. Similar to new employee training sessions, tests are conducted at the end of these classes to enable employees to work as per client specifications. Thus the organization has a continuous need for effective learning environments. The IT solutions provider gives constant training for its new as well as existing employees. There are however some issues that are inducing and pushing the organization towards change. Due to the spread of employees in offices across the country, the current instruction and learning approach does not match contemporary knowledge of how people learn. There is lack of alignment between curriculum, instruction and assessment. There is considerable lack of effective transfer of information and less levels of mastery of the subject area due to ineffective instruction methods. The spread of offices across many places within the country also results in lack of uniformity in the transfer of knowledge. Since training takes place in almost all branches across the country, different instructors train different batches of people and this results in lack of uniformity in instruction. Moreover the models that are used for instruction are outdated. Present learning environments are more knowledge centered and less learner-centered. Instructors are often unaware of prior knowledge of students and student requirements. Focus is mainly on knowledge transfer and finishing the curriculum. Very little importance is also given to assessment under the present educational model. This often gives no room for improvement of instructions. Furthermore current training system is highly time consuming and expensive. The best solution for this problem is to create an e-learning environment within the organization to transfer information. E-Learning is the use of the Internet or wireless technology to deliver a large variety of training solutions (The Herridge Group, 2003). Rosenberg (2001), defines e-learning as, “the use of Internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance.” (p. 28). E-learning is an effective method that must be intermingled along with an organization’s present learning mix. E-learning has many advantages. Firstly, there are high levels of interaction with learning materials, instructors and fellow learners. Also, increased flexibility and gives room for customization and consistency of content ensures uniformity in transfer of knowledge. The digital nature of the medium ensures cost-effective and less time consuming instruction and learning. E-learning can be asynchronous or synchronous or both. Most importantly, e-learning provides for better assessment and tracking of progress. The e-learning program for the IT solution provider will be designed through the process of Instructional Design. “Instruction is the intentional facilitation of learning towards identified learning goals. It is the intentional arrangement of experiences that lead to the learners’ acquiring particular capabilities.” (Smith & Ragan, 1999). The above mentioned capabilities may be anything from recalling information learn or applying cognitive strategies to a field of study to find or solve new problems. Training is the instructional experiences that are focused upon to facilitate individuals to acquire skills that they are likely to use right away. Design is the process which improves the quality of their ensuing creations. “Instructional design refers to the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation.” (Smith & Ragan, 1999). The process of designing instructions involves three major steps. Analysis – in this stage the designers learn all about the learners, the environment in which learners will be trained and about the repair tasks that they will undergo. They will analyze the learning tasks. Selecting the Instructional Strategy – The designers determine the way in which instruction material is presented, which learning activities can be utilized, the sequence of instructions and the medium through which information can be transferred. Evaluation – In this stage designers plan an approach for evaluating the instructional materials and designs. Evaluation in this context refers to both the evaluation of instructions as well as assessment of learners. There are several advantages of systematic instructional design. Firstly, the learner is the focus of the instruction. Secondly, instructional design aids in effective and appealing instruction and encourages co-operation among designers and developers and those who implement the design. It also assists in dispersal, dissemination and acceptance and facilitates the development of alternate delivery systems. It contributes towards the alignment between objectives, activities and assessment and provides a systematic framework for dealing with learning problems. There are many theories that play a vital role in influencing instructional design and learning. “A theory is an organized set of statements that allow us to explain, predict or control events.” (Smith & Ragan, 2005). Instructional Design usually draws from two kinds of theory, namely Prescriptive Theory and Descriptive Theory. Prescriptive theories are those that prescribe the actions that are to be taken to lead to certain results. Whereas, Descriptive Theory portrays phenomena as they are assumed to exist. Although Instructional design draws from many theory bases philosophical theories and psychological theories are most influential. Philosophical theories include objectivism and constructivism and psychological theories include, Behaviourism and Cognitive Theories. This paper will deal with three basic theories, namely, Constructivism, Behaviourism and Cognitive theories. Constructivism is an didactic philosophy within a larger class of philosophies known as rationalism. Rationalisim believes that reason is a major source of knowledge and that reality is constructed. (Smith & Ragan, 2005). An elementary belief of constructivism is that knowledge is not transmitted but constructed. Constructivists believe that people who learn construct their own reality or understand it based on their perceptions or experiences. So a person’s knowledge is a byproduct of previous experiences, mental makeup and beliefs that are utilized to recognize and construe objects and events (Fox, 2003). Most constructivists have a wide range of beliefs about knowledge and how it can be acquired. Individual constructivism is of the opinion that knowledge is built from experience. Learning is assumed to be a personal interpretation of the world and learning is also considered to be an active process in which meaning is built based on experience. Social constructivism says that sharing of many perspectives on a subject and altering of our internal representations through collaborative learning and negotiation of meaning gives rise to conceptual growth. Contextualism says that learning should take place in realistic background. Testing or assessment must be integrated with the task and should not be a separate activity. There are many advantages of constructivism. Firstly, since learners are able to understand a wide array of realities, they are likely to be capable of dealing with real life situations. Improved skills and problem solving knowledge can be applied to challenging situations. Furthermore, constructivism points out the perspectives that learners bring to the learning situation. It suggests new goals to the instructors for consideration, namely identification of nature of knowledge, understanding of the importance of multiple perspectives and identification of rules of a subject matter that defines what is viable and what is not. Lastly, constructivism aids in developing strategies that make use of technology effectively. The basic idea that governs Behaviourism is that the only aspects worth studying about human learning are those aspects that can be observed. Behaviourists usually pledged to an educational philosophy that was close to extreme empiricism. The theory focused on the observable behaviour of organisms although most behaviourists did not deny the mental activity or thinking involved in learning. Behavioural theory stressed on the influence that environments had on learning. “According to behaviourism, learning has occurred when the learners evidence the appropriate response to a particular stimulus.” (Smith & Ragan, 2005). According to Skinner, a popular behaviourist who has made significant contributions to behaviourrism, “learning is best achieved when the desired behaviours from the learning programme were created through repeated and reinforced approximations of that behaviour.” (Fox, 2003). While the influence of reinforcers in constructing stimulus response associations have relatively little or no influence on instructional design, some other applications of behaviourism such as programmed instruction have had an enduring impact. Innovations that played an important role in programmed instruction include the identification of the fact that effective non-human mediated instruction could be developed. Furthermore it also helped in the recognition of the fact that revision of materials using an empirical test of their effectiveness could improve the quality of education and instruction. The above two basic principles have had a major impact on the development of instructional design. They have also had a sizeable impact on the quality of instruction in the contexts of education and training. In behaviourism, learning is defined by clear cut goals and mechanical responses to stimulus can be observed and determined. Cognitive theory examines the learner’s impact on their own learning. Cognitive learning relates to the rationalist philosophy and is mostly compatible with constructivism. Cognitive theory focuses more on the factors within the learner than on the factors within the environment. Cognitive psychology has had an influence on learning in five ways. Firstly, it considers learning as an active, constructive process. Secondly, there is an incidence of high level processes in learning. Thirdly, the cumulative characteristic of learning and the part played by previous knowledge have major influence. Fourthly, this theory shows for concern for the way knowledge and is organized and presented. Fifthly, it also shows importance for analyzing learning tasks and performances with respect of cognitive processes involved. “Cognitive learning theory focuses on explaining the development of cognitive structures, process and representations that mediate between instruction and learning.” (Smith & Ragan, 2005). According to Cognitive theory individuals create knowledge structures known as schema. They understand and take in information through three different models. First through the sensory register where information is received through the senses. Second through short term memory, where information is stored for short periods of time. Third, through long term memory where information is stored for longer periods of time. The learner according to this theory, is viewed as building meaning from instruction received, rather than being a mere recipient of the meaning residing in the instruction. Cognitive theories aim to explain learning in terms of cognitive processes, structures and representations that are assumed to function within the learner. Instructional Systems Design (ISD) is said to be the most widely used methodology to aid in the development of new training programs (Kruse, 2009). This approach provides a gradual approach to aid evaluation of learner needs, design and development of instruction materials and the assessment of the efficiency of training intervention. One of the most important models based on ISD is referred to as the ADDIE Model. This model includes five phases of instructional design, namely, Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation. This kind of a systematic approach to instruction design has many advantages to the development of technology-based training. In the ADDIE Model each of the steps has outcomes that flow into the following steps (Instructional Design Model) Analysis Phase - This phase identifies the instructional problem and the instructional goals and objectives are set. Here the audience and their characteristics are identified and detailed and behavioural outcomes, learning constraints and delivery options are determined. The online pedagogical considerations and timeline for the project are also considered. Design Phase - This phase is related to learning intent, assessment instruments, exercises, content, lesson planning and media selection. This phase must be systematic and specific. Other steps in this stage include, documentation of the project’s visual and technical design, application of instruction strategies according to intended behavioural outcomes, creation of story boards, designing of user interface, prototype creation and application of visual deisgn. Development Phase - This is the phase when developers and designers create and put together the content that was created in the design phase. Integration of technology is done in this stage and testers perform the debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised based on obtained feedback. Implementation Phase - Development of a procedure for the training of the facilitators and learners is done here. The training must encompass course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery and testing procedures. Here the project managers ensure that all tools such as CDs and software are in position. The learning application in websites is also made functional in this stage. Learners are also trained on new tools to aid faster learning and create effective learning environments. Evaluation Phase - The evaluation phase consists of two main parts, namely the formative and summative. Formative evaluation is done in each of the stages of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation refers to the tests that are designed domain specific and criterion-related referenced items. It also aids in providing opportunities for feedback from the users and learners. Thus with the help of the above model and the principles supplied by psychological and philosophical theories an effective learning environment can be created in the IT solutions company. The existing learning models and environment can be evaluated and changes can be made to increase alignment of learning aspects and make necessary assessment of learners as well as instructional design. References Pellegrino, J W (2001). Complex Learning Environments: Connecting Learning Theory, Instructional Design and Technology. University of Illinois. Tanner, D (1999). The Textbook Controversies. 98th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. The Herridge Group (2003). E-learning: A Definition. Herridge Group Website. Retrieved August 31, 2009. http://www.herridgegroup.com/pdfs/eLearning%20a%20Definition.pdf Rosenberg, M J (2001). E-learning: strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001. p 28 Smith, P L & Ragan, T J (1999). Instructional Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999. Smith, P L & Ragan, T J (2005). Foundations of Instructional Design. Fox, M (2003). Learning Design and E-Learning. Epic White Paper. Epic Group. Kruse, K (2009). Introduction to Instructional Design and the ADDIE Model. Beginner Basics. Articles. ADDIE Model. Instruction Design Model. Read More