Helping Non-fluent Readers - Coursework Example

I. Introduction The effort for the adaptation in the school environment can be considered as a challenging one, especially for the children who face problems regarding their participation in the school-related activities due to existing weaknesses. To the above category belong the children with non-fluency in reading who have to develop their abilities in order to participate equally in the tasks and the activities set in the school. In current paper, the problem under examination is the lack of fluency that characterizes the reading of an important number of children particularly at the primary school level. In order for the specific problem to be faced, a reference to the relevant theory and the research made has been considered as necessary. II. Reading ability and general literacy skills The problem of reading difficulty is not a simple one. The reason for this assumption is that this issue is not related with just the absence of participation of the person involved in his/ her tasks set by the teacher. Instead it can be very complicated and it can be proved really challenging to face it. More specifically, there are elements, like the absence of sufficient help, the lack of support from the family or the existence of a disability that can be severe obstacles towards the resolution of the above problem effectively (Smith et al., 2003). It should also be noticed that the above problem can lead to severe consequences to a person’s life, not just in a short-term, but also in a long-term basis. McCutchen (2000, 13) made a survey trying to find the extension to which ‘multiple sources of knowledge, stored in long-term memory, are coordinated during writing within the constraints of working memory; The concept of long-term working memory is applied to the development of writing expertise; Based on research reviewed, it is speculated that lack of fluent language generation processes constrains novice writers within short-term working memory capacity, whereas fluent encoding and extensive knowledge allow skilled writers to take advantage of long-term memory resources via long-term working memory’. The above findings prove that the problem in reading can create constraints in the writing competence of the person involved. III. Methods of improving the reading competencies of pupils in primary schools In order to develop the pupils’ reading abilities in a primary school environment, teachers can choose from a series of different learning approaches (Rennie, 2000, 198): a) Formation of Reading groups In the specific type of reading activity ‘students are placed in a small group, usually no more than six, and then asked to read a text together; This reading usually proceeds around the circle, in a similar fashion to `round robin reading; If desired, groups can be formed by streaming, otherwise a range of abilities can be included in each group’. In the primary school level, this type of strategy is going to work effectively, as the participation of the pupils in a common effort will be accepted with pleasure and the whole attempt is going to have a positive result. b) Paired reading The specific strategy is used by teachers ‘whereby parents or peers read with and to other students; The technique involves two stages: In the first stage the tutor and child sit next together and simultaneously read aloud; In second stage the child attempts to read the passage independently in a non-threatening environment’. This technique however, has been under a thorough consideration and criticism. The main reason for this could be the fact that ‘there would appear to be some disagreement in the literature about whether the parent or other support should immediately supply an unknown word’. c) Shared reading This strategy is based on reading to others. It has to be noticed that ‘the word `sharing is used frequently by teachers in the classroom; More specifically ‘students are encouraged to `share their reading, writing, learning experiences and understanding; This shared notion of reading evolved from the whole language movements belief that language develops through `interaction with someone else. This particular type of reading strategy can be very successful particularly for the pupils in the primary school as it is based ‘on the bedtime story scenario so many parents are familiar with’. In this sense both the pupil (which the reading strategy involves directly) and the parents (the participation of whose are necessary for the success of the specific effort) are going to successfully deployed in this strategy. d) Round robin reading This strategy is only mentioned as an existed practical tool for the improvement of the pupils’ reading abilities. Moreover, ‘there is evidence of `round robin reading or `barber shop reading throughout history’ but it is ‘essentially an activity where a text or part of a text is read as a whole class by individual students taking turns at the reading’. Regarding the application of this strategy in practice, it has been stated that it is rather a ‘boring and purposeless practice which is often accompanied by disruptive behaviour and encourages subvocalisation while creating anxiety for less able readers’ e) Comprehension According to the most ‘acceptable’ definition ‘comprehension refers to an activity whereby students are required to either read, listen to or view a text and then answer questions orally related to that text; this same scenario is also used frequently in a written form’. The specific strategy, although applicable to the primary school level it requires the existence of other ‘helping tools’ in order to achieve the desired target, the improvement of the pupils’ reading abilities. One of these tools, as an example is the formation of particular groups which are going to co-operate between them and the teacher. The application of simple rules is also required in order for the specific strategy to be understandable from children. f) Use of analogies during the reading According to a research made by Yanowitz (2001, 2) among college students ‘using an instructional analogy to teach an unfamiliar science domain can increase students inferential reasoning about that domain’. The study of Yanowith designed to examine furthermore, whether this strategy could be applied in elementary schools. According to his findings ‘elementary school students are capable of analogical reasoning; Little prior research, however, has specifically explored the effect of analogies on inferential reasoning in scientific domains with younger students’. Furthermore, it has been examined ‘how using instructional text analogies influences childrens general understanding of science concepts’. In this context it has been found that this strategy can have a positive effect to the elementary school’s pupils on the basis that ‘a combination of text, lecture, pictures, extensive training programs, and/or demonstrations’ in order for the analogy to be introduced promptly to the pupils. It has also been proved that ‘learning about science concepts with analogies aided elementary school students ability to reason inferentially about the concepts; Participants who received analogical texts were better able to answer inferential questions compared to those who did not receive analogies’ (Yanowitz, 2001, 7) As an alternative strategy in order to improve the reading abilities of the pupils, the teachers can apply the narrative method. Zigo (2001, 63, 64) studied the possibility of application of the above technique (based on the narrative theory) in practice. For this reason, he made a series of observations of ‘30 students in two urban middle-grade special education classrooms; All of these children demonstrated difficulties decoding or comprehending written text; Moreover it was revealed that nearly every child in both classrooms became more engaged with text and more able to develop and sustain interpretations of fiction and nonfiction when allowed to explore the text through narrative; They became more energized in committing themselves to the hard work of decoding, summarizing, interpreting, and speculating upon texts when they were allowed to develop storied responses in relation to what they were reading; The observations also revealed that the children in these two classes often had difficulty accessing information, whether it was from texts or from their own memories; They also struggled when making sense of textual information that focused on abstract concepts or principles (particularly in social studies); In addition to their reading difficulties, it is possible that the textbook contributed to the students frustration during these lessons; On the other hand whenever the teacher allowed the students to rely on narrative approaches in meaning making, the students were engaged and drew on abilities where they did not seem at a disadvantage’. According to Ganske et al. (2003, 118) ‘the language experience approach (LEA) is yet another way to provide struggling readers with age-appropriate reading material’. Regarding the application of this technique in practice it has been found that ‘although often associated with readers in the primary grades, this technique can benefit many older novice readers--English-language learners and special-needs students--particularly those who are deal heating impaired, or learning disabled’. IV. Issues related with the design and the implementation of a ‘reading-improvement’ strategy in a primary school setting – findings of research It seems that the efforts of teachers to improve their pupils’ reading skills are constant and intensive. Rennie (2000, 199) made a research in order to examine the percentage of teachers that are using reading techniques in their classroom. It has to be noticed that in ‘a total of 100 teachers across 26 primary schools in Darwin’ who voluntarily participated in the study, all respondents claimed to use oral reading activities in the classroom, with 73% using them frequently’. On the other hand, the application of oral reading activities should be considered carefully because it can have negative effects in certain cases. More specifically, the research made by Rennie (2000, 205) showed that: ‘a) we could place less emphasis on oral reading, particularly where it is perceived to be a public performance of a readers recitation skills; In reality there are not many real instances outside school where people are required to read aloud from texts to others as part of a public performance, b) we could make the reader, particularly the reader who is struggling, feel more comfortable with the task, c) we need to avoid activities that reinforce the already poor self-concept some readers have of themselves as readers’. Moreover, the paired reading strategy has been also under thorough consideration as of its positive results. More specifically, Nes (2003, 179) made a research in order to ‘explore reading fluency, comprehension, and accuracy within the context of the paired reading instructional intervention’. For this reason ‘four upper elementary school students, who were experiencing fluency problems, participated in the study; A single-subject changing criterion design was employed; Baseline data were collected for each participant prior to the introduction of the paired reading instructional intervention; Reading rates and accuracy percentages were calculated and graphed daily during the baseline and instructional phases, and probed during the maintenance phase of the study; In addition, a reading maze procedure was used periodically to monitor reading comprehension skills’. As a result it has been found that ‘the unique characteristics of the paired reading instruction (i.e., positive one-to-one interactions between skilled and less skilled readers, promotion of reader engagement, extended practice, concrete evidence of progress, and reader voice in selection of interesting materials) may promote rapid turn-around in reading fluency proficiency for less-skilled readers; Moreover, paired reading was an effective method of instruction for all four participants’. It should also notice that ‘reading fluency rates increased greatly, while high and stable levels of accuracy and comprehension were maintained’ (Nes, 2003, 186) The effort for the development of the pupils’ reading skills usually faces difficulties, mostly practical ones (Busch et al., 2001). More specifically, it has been found that ‘despite the existing potential for ensuring reading success and significantly reducing the need for remedial services among struggling readers, practical difficulties often stand in the way of providing optimal reading instruction; Teachers are hard-pressed to find enough time in the day to teach the wide range of curricula required by districts and states; Reading instruction is complicated by children who enter school without the foundational literacy skills typically acquired in the preschool years, by a burgeoning population of children who speak English as a second language, and by children with behavior problems (Biglan et al., 2005, 69) Another issue that should be mentioned is that of the pupils with special needs. Mathes et al. (1998, 317) present in their study the position that ‘students with special needs, regardless of causation, share the same basic needs for literacy instruction; What sets special needs learners apart from higher performing learners is that systematic, explicit instruction appears to be critical rather than merely beneficial and that special needs students require more instructional time and opportunity to practice reading; The need for greater explicitness and time intensity does not, however, change the content of what composes good literacy instruction; In this context, general education should maintain primary responsibility for literacy education for all children, with special educators and reading specialists providing instructional support and, if necessary, additional instructional intensity and practice opportunities’ V. Conclusion The above findings lead to the assumption that in order for the non-fluent readers to develop their literacy skills, a series of requirements should be completed. First, the role of the teacher is very significant to the design and the development of an appropriate reading-development strategy (Ashley et al., 2004). Second, the parents have also a major role in the whole procedure as they have to actively participate in all stages of the effort. At a next level all the material available have to be sufficient and appropriate for the desired target. Finally, the personal effort of the child is necessary in order for the specific project to have a positive result. In any case, all the particular parameters (physical and mental situation of the child, financial strength of the parents etc.) have to be taken into account before designing any relevant strategy. References Ashley, C., Fang, Zhihui, F. (2004). Preservice Teachers Interpretations of a Field-Based Reading Block. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(1): 39-55 Biglan, A., Black, C., Black, C., Blair, J., Gunn, B., Smolkowski, K. (2005). Fostering the Development of Reading Skill through Supplemental Instruction: Results for Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Students. Journal of Special Education, 39(2): 66-95 Bush, T.W., Espin, C.A., Pederson, K., Weissenburger, J.W. (2001). Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities: Perceptions of a First-Year Teacher. Journal of Special Education, 35(2): 92-103 Ganske, K., Monroe, J.K., Strickland, D.S. (2003). Questions Teachers Ask about Struggling Readers and Writers. The Reading Teacher, 57(2): 118-130 Jimenez, R.T., Martinez-Leon, N., Smith, P.H. (2003). Other Countries Literacies: What U.S. Educators Can Learn from Mexican Schools Researchers Examined Language and Literacy Practices in First- and Fourth-Grade Classrooms in Two Schools in a Small Town in Central Mexico. The Reading Teacher, 56(8): 772-782 Mathes, P.G., Torgesen, J.K. (1998). All Children Can Learn to Read: Critical Care for the Prevention of Reading Failure. PJE. Peabody Journal of Education, 73(3): 317 McCutchen, D. (2000). Knowledge, Processing, and Working Memory: Implications for a Theory of Writing. Educational Psychologist, 35(1): 13 Nes, S. L. (2003). Using Paired Reading to Enhance the Fluency Skills of Less-Skilled Readers. Reading Improvement, 40(4): 179-186 Rennie, J. (2000). Teaching Reading: Oral Reading Practices as a Pedagogical Tool in the Primary School. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 23(3): 197-206 Weiner, E.J. (2002). Beyond Remediation: Ideological Literacies of Learning in Developmental Classrooms The Multiple Literacies Students Learn in the Remedial Projects Described Here Prepare Them to Read to Learn and to Use Their Knowledge for Social Transformation. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(2): 150-168 Yanowitz, K.L. (2001). Using Analogies to Improve Elementary School Students Inferential Reasoning about Scientific Concepts. School Science and Mathematics, 101(3): 133-144 Zigo, D. (2001). From Familiar Worlds to Possible Worlds: Using Narrative Theory to Support Struggling Readers Engagements with Texts. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 45(1): 62-71 Read More