Analysis of Ultimate Attainment in Second Language Acquisition among Children, Adolescents and Adults - Research Paper Example

A Comparison of Constraints on Ultimate Attainment in Second Language Acquisition among Children, Adolescents and Adults Introduction The way in which language is acquired differs between the native language that an individual is first exposed to and second (and subsequent) languages that they learn. The field of second language acquisition has been established for little more than 50 years and theories and knowledge have come from a variety of disciplines. Second language acquisition considers the way in which people learn a second language in addition to their native language. It examines what is learned and what is not, and the factors that determine the way in which acquire language. One important aspect of second language acquisition is that children generally pick up the new language faster and are more proficient at it than those who begin to learn the language later in life. Two general theories have been suggested to explain this phenomenon. The first is the crucial period hypothesis, which predicts that children that begin to learn the second language prior to adolescence have the ability to achieve native-like proficiency with it, while those who begin later cannot reach this level of proficiency. The second theory is that of universal grammar, and considers that there is inherent knowledge within each individual that is used as a resource for all languages. Access to this grammar varies with age, and consequently, the ability of individuals to learn languages follows the same variation. This discussion examines the research on second language acquisition in children, adolescents and adults. The evidence towards universal grammar and critical period are evaluated, as well as consideration of external factors that may contribute the phenomenon of children learning languages more effectively than adults. Background Learning a second language is a significantly different experience than that of learning one’s initial language. People who begin to learn a secondary language as a child often reach the same competence with the language as natives while few adult learners are able to do this. One of the major focuses of the field of secondary language acquisition is the achievement of native-like proficiency as the ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. This term is not clearly defined in all studies, but is generally assumed to mean speaking the language to the extent that one cannot be differentiated from a native speaker, either in terms of accent or in terms of the words used. While some learners achieve a native-like proficiency in the language, most do not . Consequently, one of the research aims of studies into secondary language acquisition is to determine what drives this difference. . There are many different aspects of the manner of ultimate attainment of a second language that are considered, with the main factors being pronunciation and grammatical structure . The two main competing theories for this are the critical period theory and universal grammar. The manner in which an individual acquires their first language (L1) is distinctly different than that of their second language (L2), and the two situations meet with significantly different outcomes. For first language acquisition, the outcome is usually success, while for second language acquisition the outcome is much more variable. In most cases, adults learning a second language fail to acquire the grammar of the target language. Consequently, it is often assumed that learners who have passed puberty cannot reach native competence as their ultimate attainment in the acquisition of their second language . One example of this is grammatical errors in speech, which can be related in part to the first language of the individual. As an example, people learning English whose first language was French tend not to leave out the subject in a sentence, as subjects are used in the French language. In contrast, English learners whose first language was Spanish often leave out the subject. Many studies have found a negative correlation between age and proficiency, with most individuals who begin learning their second language after the age of 15 failing to reach competence at levels similar to that of natives . This observation has led to the formation of hypotheses which attempt to explain what factors drive the decreased ability of individuals to learn a second completely as they age. The two most prominent of these are the critical period hypothesis and the universal grammar hypothesis. Both of these predict that it is primarily internal effects that drive this decrease in ability Critical Period Hypothesis The critical period hypothesis predicts that it is only possible for an individual to achieve native-like acquisition of a second language if the start of learning occurs before a critical age, generally thought to be puberty . The period from around two years of age leading up to this time is known as the critical period, and is neurologically based It is believed that after this point it is not possible to gain full knowledge or mastery of the language. However, debate remains concerning what the exact end point of this period is, and the fact that there is no accepted end point makes testing the theory difficult . The critical period hypothesis was first advanced in 1967, and it was proposed that the period extends from the age of approximately two years old to around puberty . This definition remains the basis of the current theory. Consequently, prepubescent learners of a second language are predicted to be able to learn the language to levels similar to that of a native, provided they have sufficient exposure, while this is not believed to be possible for those who have passed puberty . Level of attainment in the acquisition of a second language is most often correlated to the age in which the individual arrives in the country where they are learning the new language. This is generally the first time in which they are exposed to the new language for any period of time and as a consequence their learning of the language begins from this point. Other factors are also relevant, such as age of classroom exposure and amount of input of the L2 language, however these are not as strongly predictive . The critical period hypothesis is vague in some aspects and this makes testing difficult as well as intellection discussion of the theories and criteria surrounding the hypothesis. One example can be seen in the literature surrounding the topic. Many papers speak of learners having native or near-native proficiency in the language; however, most do not define what these terms mean. Of those that do, the definition of the terms vary across papers. For some papers, the tern native proficiency means not having an obvious accent, while others it means not showing grammatical errors. Because of this, it is difficult to derive consensus opinions and results from the literature . The critical period itself is another aspect that is vague. While the general consensus is that the critical period ends around puberty, there is little research on an exact age, nor on what happens to children who began learning close to this time. As the end point is not known, it is difficult to test whether there is a critical period, or whether ability simply declines with age. One hypothesis concerning the underlying basis for this period is that pronunciation, unlike other aspects of language, involves neuromotor involvement, and as a consequence there is a physical basis for this limitation. Thus, when a child is young, the neurons have more plasticity, and this allows for languages to be completely acquired in a way that is not possible later in life. This hypothesis assumes that when a child hits puberty that this ability is irreversibly lost . An alternative hypothesis is that prepubescent learners have a different mode of perception, which allows them to notice phonetic differences in accents that post-pubescent learners are unable to realize. This considers that older individuals learning their second language to perceive sounds from this language in similar categories to that of their first language and consequently to find it difficult to distinguish between the two. Another hypothesis predicts that it is not a physical barrier that limits older learners from acquiring native levels of the second language, but rather sociophysical and experiential factors. This predicts that younger learners have higher motivation and more opportunity to learn by receiving a higher level of input from native speakers . It is worth noting that the first two of these theories make their predictions based on pronunciation and accent, although many studies consider aspects such as grammatical structure as also being important. There are three methods that can be used to test the critical period hypothesis, although none of these methods are conclusive. As a consequence, the hypothesis continues to be under debate. The first is the discontinuity method. This method predicts that individuals who begin to learn L2 prior to the critical period should show much higher levels of performance than those who begin learning after the period. The main problems with this test are that there is no general agreement about the point at which the critical period finishes, and that even if an absence of discontinuity can be proven, this does not necessarily disprove the hypothesis. A second method of testing is the pre/post-correlation test. This works by calculating the correlation between age that the child first became exposed to the language (age of arrival, AOA) and their L2 performance. Although this can provide significant information, correlation can also be caused by other factors and as a consequence may not be connected to the critical period hypothesis. The final method that is used is matched subgroups, which is thought to eliminate some of the potential confounding factors in the correlation analysis . Three schools of thought suggest that this theory may not be true. The first is that in some cases adults have been shown to have an advantage in second language acquisition over children. Secondly, the theory predicts that it is not possible for any adults to achieve native-like proficiency; however, examples of such adults exist. Finally, there is no obvious age effect on learning that has been demonstrated that is linked to any particular age, rather effects have been observed across the entire life cycle . There is significant debate as to whether evidence of native-like ultimate attainment in an individual who began learning after puberty would constitute sufficient evidence to refute the critical period hypothesis. Some researchers have maintained that a single case where such proficiency could be demonstrated would be sufficient to refute the hypothesis . However, others suggest that some incidences of native-like attainment would be allowable under the hypothesis, rather than contradict it . Many authors consider that poor grammar and sentence structure is a common effect of late learners . Universal Grammar Universal grammar is a concept that has been debated in studies of second language acquisition after childhood for decades. The Universal Grammar hypothesis predicts that as a person ages there is a corresponding decline in the level to which they can access universal grammar (UG) . The theory itself is based in linguistics, and predicts that all natural human languages share some common features. It suggests that as a consequence, there are some inherent rules of grammar in the brain that do not need to be taught, and that using any language will access these rules. In regards to second language acquisition, the Universal Grammar hypothesis predicts that the access that people have to this ‘hard-wired’ information changes as they age. In early work in the field, theorists considered two alternatives, first that individuals had full access to the information, and second that they had no access. Current theory takes a less black and white approach, considering that parts of the universal grammar can be accessed by all individuals, while other parts cannot. This suggests that in adults some parts or sub parts of the universal grammar are inaccessible, and as a consequence they have a reduced ability for second language acquisition compared to children who have access to more of the universal grammar information . Evidence A comparative study looking at three groups of English speakers performing two tasks that considered aspects of UG. The three groups differed in their knowledge with one group being non-native speakers, one group being near native and the final group being a control group. The authors found no significant differences between the native or near-native speakers on either task and as a consequence concluded that competence at a native level is possible even in post-pubescent learners . This study provides evidence towards the UG hypothesis, but does not address the critical period hypothesis. The book Ultimate Attainment in Second Language Acquisition: A Case Study is an in-depth case study of a Chinese American, Patty, who learnt English as an adult-onset learner. Despite Patty’s strong integration into U.S. society and success at the new language, she does not have native level English. The two main ways which she sounds distinct from natives is in her accent, and in the creation of grammatical structures in her writing and spoken language that are not common to native language. The book considers many different aspects of the critical period hypothesis, and provides significant evidence that adult onset learners are unable to develop their L2 at a native level even given a good environment and strong advantages. External Factors The above theories consider that the differences in learning ability between children, adolescents and adults are primarily caused by internal factors. The emphasis on input as a factor in secondary language acquisition varies between authors. For example, supporters of universal grammar consider that while input is important, it plays a secondary role to internal processes. Other authors, such as Krashen, consider that input which can be comprehended is the only necessary component of acquiring a second language, all others are merely useful additions . Another important factor is the role that social aspects play in the adoption of a new language. For example, one of the best methods of learning a new language is simply to become immersed in it, particularly in an environment where using the language is a necessity. Thus, an English speaker who wishes to use French would benefit from spending time in France. Social situation can also make learning a language more difficult. For example, the way a language is used differs depending on the social status of the person being talked to. When conversing with a friend much more informal language and slang is accepted compared to talking with someone older or who has a higher social or professional position . Another external factor that is highly relevant is the desire that one has to learn a new language. Younger individuals are generally more interested and more practiced at learning in overall and consequently may have the ability to learn the language more completely. These external factors are not mutually exclusive, nor do they contradict the internal theories that were examined above. Rather, they add an additional layer of complexity to the field of second language acquisition. Conclusion The ultimate attainment in secondary language acquisition differs substantially between different ages. It has often been observed that children who are opposed to a second language early learn the language well and to the extent that they can be mistake for natives, speaking without an accent and no grammatical errors. However, generally speaking, even adults who have been integrated into the culture for many years do not show the same level of language. Examples of adult learners who show native-like levels of proficiency have been observed, however, they are much rarer than that for children. It is assumed that for the most part, second language learners who began studying as adults continue to make grammatical errors, as well as displaying an accent. There is significant evidence for the theory of a critical period in which language can be learnt effectively, although the lack of information about when this period would end makes testing the hypothesis difficult. Indications suggest that rather than a distinct period, ability to learn may continue to decrease with age, which matches the predictions of the universal grammar theory. Evidence from the research suggests that limited plasticity or reduced access to universal grammar may reduce the ability of adults to learn, meaning that children are the most effective at learning second languages. If the critical period theory is true, then adolescents will have similar learning ability to adults. However, if the hypothesis of universal grammar is accurate, then adolescents will show and intermediate ability to learn between children and adults. Much more work needs to be done on the theories before any conclusion can be made, as well as more solid definitions. References Birdsong, D. Second language acquisition and ultimate attainment. The handbook of applied linguistics. Eds. Davies, A. and C. Elder: Blackwell Publishing, 2004. Print. Birdsong, D. 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