Language-External and Internal Factors Affecting Code-Switching - Assignment Example

This is my assignment which I failed in…..the gave me these comments and in order to pass I have to follow his comments and fix the mistakes… Please fix the mistakes that he pointed out..and NOT rewrite the paper. P.S. most of the information in my paper I got it of written paper on similar topics on the internet. Please highlight what you have edited. Issues in Bilingualism Topic: What are the language-external and language-internal factors affecting code-switching? Discuss the interplay between exogenous and endogenous factors. Marking criteria: -Demonstration of a range of relevant reading and understanding of issues on Bilingualism. -Ability to evaluate issues related to the vaious facets of bilingualism in diffrent context (societal, indvidual, educational) - Depth of discussion of chosen topic. -Coherence of assignment, especially overall orgnization and division into sections and paragraphs -Presentation, espcially correctness of refrencing and bibliography, and quality of writing. Comments: 1& 2. You cover an extensive litreture but there seems to be some confusion as to what the criteria for defining external and internal factors are. These are not clearly defined . Especially in the section on the interplay between internal and external factors these are compleatly fused together and it is unclear why a certain factor is language external or language internal. Word frequency for example is not a language external factor. Additionally, specific functions of codeswitching such as ‘gaining the floor’ are lablled as external factors. Defnition of ‘internal-sentetial CS’ is not right (p. 3). 3.Although you cover quite a lot of factors, you do not discuss then in depth; they are most of the time juxtaposed, as if on a list. There is also quite alot of confusion as to what constitutes a language internal and external factor (see comment above ). For example it is unclear what is meant by the heading ‘grammar criteria’ (p.2 ff). What follows in this section doesnt make it any clearer. Is the heading in correct (see what follows resituational and conversational switching )? This section does not adequatelyaddress the question throughout . Additionally, the section on ‘internal factors of CS is poor. The example about women using french to show knolledge of fation seems a bit anecdotal. Not enough detail provided about different factors, e.g Why/when does a speaker feel uncomfortable and hence code-switch? What languages do saudi teenagers use? It seems imposible that age alone would be a factor for CS in this context. The example about motivation is also weak. This whole section needed more detail, a more in depth and crtical evaluation of possibly less factors to make it more convincing. Regarding the section on ‘external factors of code switching’: The various factors are presented as if on a list and there is no in-depth engagment with the litreture and no critical evaluation ot it. Additionally, not all factors you mention here are really external factors of code switching (see previous comment). 4&5. The overall orgnization of the assignment is poor. You need to work on building your arguments so that its coherence improves (e.g. middle paragraph on p. 4: how does it relate to previous ones? What point is being made here ?) Refrencing is correct apart from a couple of slips (e.g. Poplack needs a year, p.3), as is the bibliography. General: You have identified a wide range of factors related to code-switching but it is unclear which ones belong to langugae external and langauge internal factors and why. This is the biggest drawback of the essay. In order to pass this assignment you need to: 1. Clearly set the criteria you are using to define language internal and language external factors. This will help restructure your essay and make it clearer. 2. You could narrow down on all the possible factors that affect code-switching and discuss them in more depth. Contents Contents 2 Introduction 3 I.Grammatical Criteria 3 II.Internal Factors of Code Switching 7 III.External Factors of Code Switching 10 IV.Interplay between Internal and External Factors 12 Conclusion 14 References 15 Introduction Many people around the globe today can be considered bilingual (Baker, 1996). An interesting phenomenon related to the study of bilingualism is code switching. Code switching has been studied as a phenomenon by linguists for the last quarter of the twentieth century. Pioneers in the study of code switching and its components were Blom and Gumperz (1972). According to Gardner-Chloros (1991), code switching occurs when a person communicating in their own language switches to another language form due to either external or internal factors. Code switching happens when “two or more speakers who are bilingual in the same languages communicate with one another” (Hamers and Blanc, 2000). Gardner-Chloros (1991) also notes that code switching takes place in bilingual and multilingual situations, and in situations involving languages and dialects. According to Li Wei (1994), in regards to conversations, code switching is an important benchmark for bilingual speakers. Therefore, in relation to other linguistic behaviours, code switching is distinct from a sociological and cultural perspective, with different bilingual groups utilizing different strategies. Code switching is used to accommodate and link up with other members of the same linguistic group (Wei). However, there are four areas of interest in the domain of code switching theory that are fruitful for exploration: grammatical criteria, internal and external factors, as well as the interplay between these factors. I. Grammatical Criteria Linguistic Categorizations within Code Switching Linguists have distinguished between varying kinds of code switching. This section examines a number of the varying grammatical categorizations linguistics have made within the study of code switching. According to Blom and Gumperz, (cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000), there are two different types of code switching that scholars have distinguished. These types are situational switching and conversational switching. Situational switching means that participants re-identify each other’s privileges and responsibilities and there is an alteration in a situation or topic. Conversational switching does not have any alterations. Separate researchers have also pointed toward the importance of distinguishing between three types of code switching (Poplack, 1980, cited in Hamers et al.) . They are: 1) “extra-sentential code-switching or the insertion of a tag”( (Poplack, cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000). An example would be words like “I mean, you know” (Poplack, cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000). 2) “inter-sentential code-switching” (Poplack, cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000). It denotes that a speaker will start a speech sequence by speaking one sentence in a specific language and finish it in another language. Chidambaram (2006) states, “Intra sentential switching takes place within a sentence or clause or word boundaries with no apparent change in topic, interlocter, setting etc.” According to Chidambaram these changes involve language changes within sentences, but also within larger clause sentence inclusions, such as the example of “I am hungry. Je veux manger.” 3) “intra-sentential code-switching” (Poplack, cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000). This is where changes of different types taking place in a clause limit included within the word limit. For example, Hamers and Blanc (2000) note “kio ke six, seven hours te school de vic spend karde ne, they are speaking English all the time (because they spend six or seven hours a day at school they are speaking English all the time). Alteration Criteria have also been established further for the subcategory of alteration and it has been noted that code switching alteration includes parts of both languages (Hamers and Blanc, 2000), when there are components from the second language or when some constituents are switched; this is due to the languages not making one constituent when switched. However, Hamers and Blanc (2000) state that “if, however the switched elements are all single, well-defined constituents, insertion is more likely” (p. 261). Scholars have also noted that alterations may happen if elements are switched at the end of the utterance, when, on the other hand, insertion may be more likely to happen if elements from the second language come before and after a switched string (Hamers and Blanc, 2000, p. 261). Poplack (2000) notes two linguistic constraints on intra-sentential code switching in relation to the development of the free morpheme and equivalence model. The free morpheme happens when the lexical form is mixed phonologically with the bound morpheme language and the second constraint is of equivalence; the second part of the model is explained as “the order of the sentence constituents immediately adjacent to and on both sides of the switch must be grammatical with respect to both languages simultaneously” (Hamers and Blanc, 2000, p. 261). Matrix Language Frame Model The matrix language frame model is an approach to intra-sentential code switching. The matrix model asserts, in regard to code switching, that one language has to be the dominant or a “matrix language” (Myers- Scotton, 1993, cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000, p.264). Therefore, there are more morphemes in the discourse process and it is the language in which the speaker is more fluent. Furthermore, the matrix language determines the order of the elements in mixed constituents and provides the system or grammatical morphemes (cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000). An example of it would be when an Arabic native speaker switches to English, which is his second language. Arabic is the matrix language and English would be the embedded language and the language that is not dominant. The previous three models focused on keeping the languages that are in the code switching process grammatical, apart and discrete. Markedness Historically, researchers have been building on the extant data related to code switching through study and observation. Previously, research on code switching observed that bilinguals or even multilingual populations have a dictionary in their mind for each language (Heredia and Brown, 2010). However, a significant theory that examined code switching from a different view is the theory of markedness. Markedness theory is a concept that Myers-Scotton (1993, cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000), developed that asserts that when a speaker speaks a certain language, the listener has the ability to signal and understand the existing situation. Moreover, when using more than one language, the speaker will possibly instigate concession over an applicable social position. Maxims of Choice There are three maxims of concern in code switching: unmarked choice, marked choice and exploratory choice. The unmarked choice maxim focuses on the code choice registering in the unmarked index of the unmarked RO set in talk exchanges when you wish to establish or affirm this RO set. The second maxim is the marked choice maxim and this is concerned with registering directions: “make a marked code choice...when you wish to establish a new RO set as unmarked for the current exchange”(Hamers and Blanc, 2000, 131). The third maxim is the exploratory choice maxim: “when an unmarked choice is not clear, use code switching to make an exploratory choice as candidates for an unmarked choice and theory as an index of an RO”. Some linguists criticize the theory of markedness and say that it depends intensively on exterior knowledge (Chad, 2006). Auer (1998) criticizes markedness and claimed that studies have been unsuccessful in showing the relationship between a certain language and the speech activities that have been previously established. II. Internal Factors of Code Switching Characteristics of Internal Code Switching One of the primary divisions linguistics make when considering code switching is that between internal and external factors. This section considers the nature of internal code switching. Internal code switching has been defined as the factors of code switching that takes place within one language. Within the language linguists differentiate between diglossic and dialectical code switching – both slight variations on the core language. There are several important factors related to these forms of internal code switching. According to LePage and Tabouret-Keller, (1985, p.181) acts of identity are one of the reasons code switching occurs: “The individual creates for himself the patterns of his linguistic behaviour so as to resemble those of the group or groups with which from time to time he wishes to be identified, or so as to be unlike those from whom he wishes to be distinguished”. Therefore, the speaker chooses to code switch occasionally because he or she wants to be identified with the dialect of choice. For instance, individuals from lower income backgrounds will often alter their speech patterns when conversing with individuals who they perceive as upper class. Myers-Scotton comment on research conducted in a workplace setting and concludes that solidarity emerges as a reason for code switching. For instance, they observe that a sister uses the word “Lwidakho”, which is in her mother tongue, to speak to a family member. In a slightly different and less fluid understanding of code switching as motivated by identity, intimacy and gender are seen by as internal factors that affect the choice of codes (Grosjen, p. 136). For example, a comparison of girls’ conversation with boys’ conversation in Saudi Arabia reveals that girls tend to code switch more than boys when conversing. According to Tajfel (1974), a speaker code switches when he deals with possible ethnic intimidation that comes from a person who does not belong to his group. The person may switch because he wants to form social distance. Similarly, age is also considered to be one of the internal factors that reflect the choice of code switching and age does affect the linguistic choice (Grosjean, 1982). Saudi teenagers, for example, are often heard code switching internal elements of their language when talking to each other. Another factor influencing code switching is language proficiency. According to Grosjean (1982) language proficiency influences the choice of language that we want to switch to. For example, the speaker might switch to another dialect when they feel uncomfortable. Grosjean notes linguistic preferences do affect the language choice when code switching. When a speaker prefers one speech mode over another he tends to switch to it in his speech. For example, a speaker might choose to speak in a certain dialect just because he likes speaking it; he likes the way it sounds or feels more confident when speaking it. Following this understanding, according to Kamwangamalu (1989) self pride may be an important or possible factor to consider in relation to code switching. For example, it may mean that a person might choose to switch to a language as a demonstration of self-confidence. Finally, gaining the floor is another internal factor for code switching. Li Wei (1994) observes it in a conversation between a girl and her younger sister when code switching occurs in the dialogue and is used as a strategy to gain the floor. In this respect, code switching is an element of dialectical shift in tone. In the proceeding regards one can begin to see the underlining similarities between many elements of internal code switching. While these factors can be distinguished individually there is a strong social impetus behind these changes. Indeed, Nilep (2006, pg. 3) stated: If linguists regard code switching simply as a product of a grammatical system, and not as a practice of individual speakers, they may produce esoteric analyses that have little importance outside the study of linguistics per se, what Sapir called “a tradition that threatens to become scholastic when not vitalized by interests which lie beyond the formal interest in language itself Perhaps this is why an exceedingly large portion of the literature on code-switching is of a sociolinguistic nature. While social factors are oftentimes essential elements of internal code switching, there are some internal elements that are closely related to one’s background. This can be distinguished from external code switching which is more strongly rooted in one’s grammatical background or upbringing. The motivation for learning English is very strong in most countries around the world. Indeed, English has become an unofficial lingua franca for many nations. Motivation is found to be one of the reasons that they would code switch so that they would recall phrases or words learned or as a step forward to learning a language. Previous studies at Al Balqa’ Applied university in Jordan (Hazaymeh, 2004) have shown that people, especially students, find code switching very prestigious; participants would code switch in front of their friends, colleagues and researchers. It is found that students would use words like quiz, first and final. In a sense, code switching in this context is grammar related; however it is the overarching socio-cultural pressure to learn English that remains the motivating force. Following this, Abu-Haidar (1988) observes that mood emerges as a dimension of code switching and it occurs in conversation depending on the social context. In this regards, mood is more closely aligned with an intuitive qualitative sense than a strictly sociolinguistic one. III. External Factors of Code Switching Characteristics of External Code Switching Conversely, external elements of code switching relate to elements of code switching that occur when the speaker switches between two entirely different languages. While external code switching remains highly rooted in sociolinguistic analysis, there is a sense in the literature that a more stringently grammatical approach should be taken to the examination of code switching in the external context. Indeed, early writers such as Vogt (1954, pg. 368) argued that, “bilingualism is of great interest to the linguist because it is the condition of what has been called interference between languages.” In this sense, code switching is not to be understood as a unique sociolinguistic phenomenon, but as a natural extension of the evolution and process of verbal communication. Within the study of external code switching there are several important factors, including specific situational contexts, geographic motivations and setting, and general utility. Perhaps the most clearly delineated aspects of external code switching occur in specific situational contexts. Such an external factor that is common across the world is religion. A speaker code switches from their language to the language of their religion. For example, English Muslim speakers, for example, might code switch to Arabic in their prayers where they read verses from the Holy Quran because it is in the Arabic language. Indeed, Grosjean (1982, p.136) notes that the specific topic is considered to be a major exterior factor in code switching. For example, if the topic that is being discussed, for instance, is medical in an Arabic speaking society, then code switching would be frequently observed because most medical terms that are utilized are not translated into Arabic. In addition, quotations are identified by Gumperz (1982) as a factor for switching. Gal (1979) notes “all one needs to know to predict the language in which most quotes will be spoken is the language in which the original utterance was spoken” (p.109). Gumperz also finds that interjections are one of the reasons for code switching. Speakers might use fillers like you know in their speech in a one-language conversation. Following the functional understanding of external code switching, one’s occupation is also found to be a reason for changing from language to language. Grosjean (1982, p. 136) states that speakers are likely to code switch because of their everyday job demands. For example, this perspective may be observed in everyday situations in companies, hospitals, tourism and stores is considered a factor in a speaker’s choice to switch to a certain language (Hymes, 1962; Akere, 1977; Bokamba, 1989; Kachru, 1989; Kamwangamalu, 1989). For example, the presence of an official or person of some prestige may cause a code switching episode. Similarly, such code switching occurs within informal conversations. According to Fishman (1971), English/Spanish code switching may occur between a boss and a secretary, where the speakers might switch to Spanish for informal conversation and to English for formal business situations. Indeed, social regularities, according to Breitborde (1983), impact the code switching process. Breitborde (1983) notes that people tend to code switch according to the social regulations rather than an individual strategy; for example, a teacher code switches from one language to another in a classroom to deal with classroom management issues. Speakers might also switch from one language to the other for repetition. Gumperz addresses repetition as a reason for people code switching. For example, an Arabic-speaking mother, for example, might call for her children in Arabic and, when they do not reply, she might repeat what she said in English and await their response. In these senses, one can refer back to Vogt (1954) who indicates the natural elements of code switching in contradistinction to the more heavily sociolinguistic understanding of a Sapir. External code switching is also geographically or politically influenced. An external factor that is common in the United States is immigration. The traffic of Spanish speaking immigrants coming to the States causes a context whereby code switching is very common when speakers of both languages want to explain or interact with each other (Hernandez-Chavez, personal communication). Indeed, location and setting are causes introduced as external factors for code switching by Grosjean (1982, p. 136). For example, many Arabic speakers switch codes when they arrive in an English-speaking country. Language dominance is also an external factor; for example, Heredia and Brown (2010) note in a study that dominance does emerge as an important factor in linguistic interference and they give an example of Spanish-English bilinguals, noting that Spanish speakers code switch more when they converse in their own language. Educational background can affect code switching. Students who have been studying abroad and come back are found to code switch and borrow words and phrases from the language they have been studying in; the number of years that a person has lived in a country also has a big effect on a speaker’s code switching (Mohammad-Ameen and Hazaymeh, 2004). An example of this might be people who have spent many years in the United States. They might be able to produce the same sounds and learn the language; therefore, the experience might have them code switch unintentionally. IV. Interplay between Internal and External Factors The interplay between exogenous factors and endogenous factors occurs across cultures, particularly in relation to religion, location, educational background and language dominance. A specific internal factor for a bilingual speaker to code switch may emerge as the result of an external factor. For example, an external factor like religion, location or setting might be causes of internal factors like identity, solidarity, mood and ethnic intimidation. A bilingual or a multilingual code switch might be because he/she wants to show solidarity for a particular location. For example, if the speaker is from Saudi Arabia and speaks Arabic when talking to others who speak Arabic in the United States, he would show solidarity when switching. A Muslim bilingual might switch to Arabic when reading the holy Quran and by doing so he is showing identity. Location and setting are external factors that may also have a role in the bilingual’s mood in wanting to switch from one language to the other. Being in a relaxed situation, for example, might affect the choice of the language. Educational background, status, occupation and social regularities as external factors do internally influence the speaker’s reason for code switching. External factors may result in related internal factors. The internal factors that result may include self pride, modernization, prestige and gaining the floor. A bilingual speaker, for example, because of his educational background, status and occupation and social regularities, which are external factors, might be found code switching because he wants to be looked at as modernized because he is educated and might be found prestigious because of his status and occupation. Moreover, capitulate to social factors, which are a combination of both external and internal factors. Another factor that influences internal factors is language dominance. The concept of language dominance simply refers to the predominant language used within the individual’s specific language community. In most situations a culture’s majority spoken language causes external factors such as an individual’s language preference and language proficiency. In addition, it affects the preferred language for speaking. For example, if the speaker lives in an English-speaking country he could prefer to speak English most of the time because it will fulfil his needs, yet switch to another when necessary or socially appropriate. Informal conversation, repetition and interjection are external factors that can be caused by the internal factor intimacy and the opposite applies. Both of these factors do interplay with each other. An informal situation such as a family round the dinner table or a mother calling her children by switching from one language to another to get their attention or even interjection in informal situations are all results of an internal factor. In addition to the specific interplay between internal and external factors, there is a meta-element of code switching that has been referred to by linguistics as ‘footing’. While there are a diverse number of understandings of footing, one of the predominant definitions has been specified by Goffman as involving, “the sound markers that linguists study pitch, volume, rhythm, stress, tonal quality” (Goffman 1981, pg. 128). For Goffman, footing then occurs as both an internal and external element of code switching and must be understood in conjunction with the formal modes of switching specific languages. Conclusion In conclusion, the historical development of research into the code switching phenomenon has a broad range of extant data to support various theoretical positions although this paper does not cover all of them. However, what previous research has done is to establish parameters for further study and evaluation. If this specific research advances any arguments it is that one of the fundamental questions that can be raised in relation to external and internal code switching is the extent to which one can term it a sociolinguistic phenomenon versus one of natural grammatical or linguistic evolution. While one may argue that this is merely a semantic distinction, it is nonetheless important in articulating and advancing an understanding of the process of code switching. 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