Reading Interventions for Children With Learning Disabilities - Research Paper Example

Reading Interventions for Children With Learning Disabilities Since the beginning of time, teachers have held very influential positions in the livesof students. They somehow have the power to make or break a student in terms of his academic performance. There are teachers who rigidly stick to their planned objectives, that disruptions such as a student’s erratic behavior can upset their teaching modes. There are those who, blessed with a broader understanding of child development and psychology, are more considerate of student’s backgrounds and life circumstances and how these affect their learning. Various developmental disorders have been diagnosed in the last few decades. Such disabilities cause learning difficulties that need special interventions. Three prevalent disabilities are Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Autism and Specific Language Impairments. These shall be discussed briefly followed by some interventions used by educators to help them improve their reading and comprehension skills. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral disorder characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity (American Psychological Association. APA. 2000). It is complex syndrome of impairments related to the development of brain cognitive management systems or executive functions. It affects a person’s organization skills, concentration, focus and prolonged attention on a task, processing speed, short-term working memory and access recall, sustained motivation to work and the appropriate management of emotions. Brown (2007) has enumerated the executive functions of the brain that work together in various combinations as thus: Activation – the process of organizing, prioritizing and activating for work Focus – focusing, sustaining and shifting attention to tasks Effort – regulating alertness and sustaining effort and processing speed Emotion – managing frustration and modulating emotions Memory – using working memory and accessing recall Action – monitoring and self-regulating action Recent research on AD/HD gives evidence that it is not a problem of will power but a chronic impairment in the chemistry of the management system of the brain. “Evidence now shows that /\DD is a highly heritable disorder, with impairments related to problems in the release and reloading of two crucial neurotransmitter chemicals made in the brain: dopamine and norepinephrine. These chemicals play a crucial role in facilitating communication within neural networks that orchestrate cognition. “(Brown, 2007). Typically, ADHD symptoms manifest in early childhood before age seven. Most symptoms are observed in the school setting. Due to the fact that the behaviors that define inattention are related to academic activities, classrooms require children to focus their attention and demonstrate self-application and self discipline (Jensen, et al, 1999; Hawkins, Martin, Blanchard & Brady, 1991). However, AD/HD may or may not be accompanied by hyperactivity or other readily observable symptoms. Some students may appear to be paying attention to the discussion in class but they are actually drifting off and thinking of unrelated things. Others may be diligent in reading assignments but shortly after, will be unable to recall what had just been read. Teachers are instrumental in identifying some children who manifest symptoms of ADHD and recommend them for professional evaluation and its corresponding intervention. Hence, they should be knowledgeable enough to recognize and deal with the disorder. Autism is a developmental disability that affects a person’s ability to communicate, understand language, play, and interact with others. Autism is a spectrum disorder, meaning that it affects people differently and the range is wide. It also means that its definition is based on patterns of behaviors that a person exhibits. Some children may have speech, whereas others may have little or no speech. It is a neurological disability that is presumed to be present from birth and it is always apparent before the age of three and is a part of a broader spectrum of autistic disorders (Siegel, 1996; Gillberg, 1997; Rimland, 1964; APA, 2000; NIMH, 2005). Autism and its associated spectrum of disorders are severe disorders of communication and social relatedness. It is estimated that more than two out of every 1,000 children in the United States are affected by autism or autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and, according to a recent study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that number may be a high as six per 1,000. This means that there are at least 1.5 million children and adults with autism in America, making it one of the country’s most common developmental disabilities (Weaver and Hersey, 2005). Currently, researchers are exploring different explanations for various possible causes of autism (Autism Society of America, 2003). These include, genetics, neurological, prenatal exposures, metabolic diseases, environmental, food allergies, , vaccines, personality traits and .an interplay of factors. Specific Language Impairment (SLI) or developmental dysphasia is characterized by auditory decoding deficits, phonological, lexical, syntactic and associative deficits (Dloula, 2003). In a study conducted by Dloula (2003) children diagnosed with SLI are unable to recognize acoustic contours and to identify key words from a spoken message. They perform poorly on “mono aural low redundancy speech tests, bilateral deficits on dichotic speech tasks and poor word recognition skills. Competing sentences test and identification test with contralateral competing message represent binaural separation or integration” (Dlolula, 2003, p. 231). The dysphasic children were tested by dichotic tasks—repetition of two-syllabic words and short sentences. Results of the study indicate the “relationship between developmental dysphasia (SLI) and central auditory processing disorder (CAPD): these dysphasic children have auditory processing deficit—not only integration, but also associative deficit (Dloula, 2003, p. 231). Pauses and slower delivery of speech then becomes more understandable to SLI children to allow auditory processing to take place. This association of auditory deficits with language disorders brought about the conclusion that auditory problems caused language problems. Tallal has been deeply involved in coming up with remediation and interventions for children with language learning impairments. From her studies, it has been concluded that “deficient temporal perception rates that have been shown to specifically disrupt acoustic processing of speech, are related to specific language-based learning impairments (LLI). Temporal processing deficits correlate highly with the phonological discrimination and processing deficits in these children” (Tallal, Merzenich, Miller & Jenkins, 1998, p.197). With this information, she and her colleagues have designed methodologies to cater to the needs of these children namely computer games designed to adaptively change temporal integration rates for acoustic cues within both non speech and speech stimuli and Listening exercises desgined to explicitly train on-line phonological discrimination and language comprehension using acoustically modified speech (Nagarajan, et al, 1997). Upon continued use of these methodologies, the children exhibited marked improvement in their auditory processing, speech and language skills. The above-mentioned disorders that affect children likewise affect their reading skills, causing delays in reading development. According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (Jitendra, Edwards, and Starosta 2004), 40 percent of fourth-grade students in the United States read below their grade level. The controversy regarding reading education increases when children with learning disabilities are considered. In 2002, the U.S. Department of Education (Manset-Williamson and Nelson 2005) reported that, of the approximately 2,887,217 schoolaged children receiving public services for learning disabilities, the majority were identified as having a learning disability because of developmental delays in reading. In order to recognize words, it has been found that students must possess phonemic awareness and decoding skills. Sound identification and recall, letter recognition, alphabet recall, instant word recognition, and sound-symbol associations are the “building blocks” of reading (Wright and Jacobs 2003). Also, fluency or speed and accuracy in reading should be exhibited in order to place recognized words together in context so meaning is understood. Such fluency must be maintained to reach full comprehension and become successful readers (Manset-Williamson and Nelson 2005). If such skills are absent, children experience difficulties throughout their academic life, so students with learning disabilities should be provided early and effective reading interventions to correct deficiencies for future academic success (Swanson, 2001). According to Watson and others (2003), several researchers have found that children with reading difficulties also experience difficulties with rapid naming, speech pronunciation, communication, and metalinguistic development. Many exhibit specific deficiencies, such as attentional problems and central-processing disorders, the latter of which can consist of delays in working memory or temporal sequencing. Some children failing in academic achievement demonstrate sensory deficits, both peripheral, as with visual acuity or auditory sensitivity, and central, as with auditory and visual-perceptual processing disorders. Other students have difficulty reading because of a lack of vocabulary. Many children with learning disabilities are unfamiliar with a large number of the words in the texts they are provided to read. Being so, it hinders their comprehension of the text and they become passive readers, meaning they do not go further in searching understanding of the (Tomesen, 1998). Typically, poor readers not only possess smaller vocabularies but also lack the strategies needed to derive meaning from unfamiliar words through their surrounding context. Vocabulary and word identification both play a major role in the ability to read (Biemiller 2003; Tomesen, 1998). High-quality vocabulary instruction is effective in aiding comprehension. Such instruction should include defining new words and applying them in classroom discussion, storytelling, and written assignments (Gersten and Geva 2003). Martin, Martin & Carvalho (2008) claim that for a reading program with learning disabilities to be effective, various strategies based on individual needs must be incorporated while concurrently implementing fundamental techniques of approaches to the program. One consistent problem when choosing appropriate instruction for children with learning disabilities is that no general approach can be recommended for all students. Educators use divergent approaches that offer sensible principles that have worked on their students. Although the children classified as learning disabled are the largest single category of students receiving special-education services, one program cannot “fix” all. The spectrum of learning disabilities is as varied as the students themselves (Swanson and Carson 1996). One approach is the whole language approach, which emphasize a holistic, meaning-based and context-based approach in linking printed text with spoken language. Little attention is paid to specific or isolated skills and limited emphasis is placed on the role of focused practice. Language and literacy are viewed as integrated systems, and specific components of language such as sounds of each letter are not learned in isolation (Norris & Hoffman, 1993). The intention is to link classroom experiences, life experiences, and background knowledge to gain comprehension of literature (Brooks-Harper and Shelton 2003). The whole language philosophy is based on the assertion that literacy develops naturally, in much the same manner as language is acquired. Another prevalent approach is the direct instruction, which uses a teacher-centered format. Students are grouped according to functional reading levels and the teachers teach them specific skills on a sequential basis in consideration of their current abilities. They are given texts that specifically gear towards reinforcing the skills being taught (Wright & Jacobs, 2003). Direct instruction features one-one-one instruction that is intense, explicit, and delivered over an extended period of time to allow for generalization (Swanson 1999). The teacher provides numerous examples and frequent demonstrations, followed by guidance and feedback, as the students practice the new skills (Tomesen 1998). Direct instruction requires students to deal with one problem associated with reading at a time. Written text is viewed as a set of small units that become meaningful in combination with one another (Smith 2003). A child would first need to develop an understanding of the smallest units (that is, letters or graphemes and speech sounds or phonemes). As phonemic awareness is mastered, they can then begin to understand the relationship between words and their meanings. Lastly, students learn the relationship between sentences and paragraphs to comprehend intended meaning. What is truly effective is early intervention. Martin, Martin and Carvalho (2008) suggest that the early intervention should focus on a teacher-directed approach closely resembling the direct instruction approach. Skills are taught at the functional reading level of the learning disabled child and his or her progress is frequently evaluated. Teachers get to work on skills sequentially and provide modeling, guidance and support during the learning process. More specific reading intervention strategies have been developed especially for children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) (Gately, 2008). Quill (2000) notes that "children with ASD tend to focus on details and interpret information in a fragmented manner; they misperceive the intentions of others and become stuck in one mode of thinking and behaving" (p. 20). These characteristics predispose children with ASD toward difficulty understanding narrative text found in stories. Other children with learning disabilities share this dilemma, struggling with reading comprehension. Many processes are involved in comprehension such as understanding the author’s vocabulary, style of writing and story structure. Readers should also understand the characters’ social experiences, and how these contribute to the motivations, goals and actions in the story. Developing empathy with the characters may contribute to a higher level of comprehension, although for children with ASD and other learning disabilities, this is exceptionally difficult (Gately, 2008). Reading specialists have developed a variety of strategies that can help children with ASD and other learning disabilities to develop higher order reading comprehension skills. These strategies include priming background knowledge, picture walks, visual maps, think-alouds and reciprocal thinking, understanding narrative text structure, goal structure mapping, emotional thermometers, and social stories (Gately, 2008). These strategies employ visually cued instruction such as graphics and color as well as provide tangible and concrete information pertinent to the story. The use of visually cued instruction helps students with retention of what to do or say and decreases their reliance on other prompts, which eventually increases their independence. Such scaffolding are removed when the children become more automatic in their responses. Think-alouds and reciprocal teaching are other ways to help students with disabilities learn four strategies: predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing. (Palinscar & Brown, 1985). Think-alouds are recommended for children having difficulty with the meta-cognitive aspects of reading (Reutzel & Cooter, 2001). Think-alouds are used by initially selecting a passage based on the strategy modeled. Teachers explicitly teach students the four strategies by modeling thinking through the story with the students (Tovani, 2000). They “think aloud” whatever they experience in the reading process and then later, engage the students in talking about their own thinking by answering direct questions, developing questions to ask other students or making comments to share with the group. These strategies essentially help students to become independent in their understanding of the text. Students with reading difficulties need to carefully understand narrative text structure to improve their comprehension skills. They also learn to organize narrative text so it becomes coherent. Students understand narrative text by knowing the main characters and what they did. Teaching basic actor words (e.g., man, woman. Jane. Bill, grandparents, dogs, and relatives) and basic action words (e.g., ate. jumped, cried, slept, and ran) and then combining the two words to make a complete thought helps develop text structure (Gately, 2008). Events or happenings in the story may be written on strips of paper to be arranged in sequence as a recall exercise. As students develop the skill of identifying the sequence of action by listing who-did-what, they can be shown how to insert transitional words to help them write series of events. Students understand the story better when they understand the feelings and emotions of the characters. When they do, they appreciate the choices made by the characters better. Gray (2003) uses social stories to help children consider perspectives of others in social situations and help consider perspectives of various characters. Diagnostically, this may be a difficult thing to do for children with ASD. However, social stories can help them improve their comprehension skills because it encourages them to relate the story to their own situations. It assists students to make important connections to the characters that they otherwise might overlook or misinterpret. Westby (2004) came up with the concept of the emotional thermometer using colors and varied vocabulary. It helps students picture the intensity of feelings. Gray (1994) suggests that color connotes emotions and guide children with ASD to understand and describe feelings and emotions for both the characters in the story and for themselves. For example, green can connote good ideas and happy feelings while red connotes bad ideas or angry feelings. Gately (2008) concur that color shades can be used to help children “see” the intensity of feelings concretely; identify the characters’ feelings; show differences between protagonists and antagonists; show how character emotions can change with different events and show how feelings can affect the characters’ choices. When a child is diagnosed with a learning disability, it does not mean that It’s a life sentence, because nowadays, research on effective interventions for students with ASD, ADHD, etc. goes on and have brought about much hope for these children and their families. These interventions take into consideration the specific cases of children they serve. The wide variety of interventions likewise raises the success rate of children who may appear to be “uneducable”, but innovative educators can simply choose the strategies best suited for the child so he gets an equal chance at a good education, like everyone else. References Autism Society of America (2003). Biomedical and Dietary Treatments (fact Sheet) [cited 2004], Bethesda, MD: Autism Society of America. Available from http://www.autismsociety.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Biomedical Dietary Treatments Biemiller, A. (2003). Vocabulary: Needed if more children are to read well. Reading Psychology 24 (3): 323–35. 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