Early Childhood - Research Paper Example

Early Childhood Early childhood is the most important phase in human life with long-term consequences that last well into adulthood. The experiences of early childhood years have an enduring effect on an individual's future learning capacity. Child growth is a natural pattern of development involving physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development. During the years between the prenatal period and eight years of age, and especially in the first three years of life, children undergo rapid development that is highly influenced by the external environment. According to World Health Organisation, WHO, especially this period is characterised by intensive brain development which affects cognitive, social and emotional growth (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs332/en/index.html). Adequate stimulation or learning opportunities received during this sensitive period help children to develop and learn, while equipping them with the capacity to deal with complex situations and environments later in life. The early childhood experience has a strong influence on brain architecture, many aspects of which are established before the child enters school (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child U.S., 2007 Working paper #5). Hence, the quality of a child’s early environment could have a significant impact on how the genetic capacities of the brain such as language and responses to social cues are shaped. Several studies devoted to the science of early life experience have shown that children's long-term emotional and psychological health are also significantly influenced by their experiences between birth and age 5 (JAMA and Archives Journals, 2010). Erikson, the well-known developmental psychologist, has described (in 1956) the psychosocial development of human beings from birth to death in eight consecutive stages, the first three stages encompassing early childhood. Chronologically, the period of infancy until the child is school-ready that is, around 7 years of age, the child acquires a whole gamut of social and psychological traits including hope, will, self-control and courage. Eighty-five percent of brain development occurs by the age of 5, while children acquire a good bit of their vocabulary, which is the foundation for literacy, by the age of 3 years (Braden-Clarke, 2007). Early childhood is also the period when the foundation for logical thinking skills is laid. Jean Piaget, another well-known researcher in the area of developmental psychology identified four stages of cognitive development. He described a sensorimotor stage in infancy during which the child demonstrates intelligence through motor activity, without the use of symbols (Huitt and Hummel, 2003). Physical development that is, increasing mobility, enables the child to explore more and thereby acquire new intellectual abilities. In the toddler and early childhood stage referred to as the pre-operational stage, the child demonstrates intelligence through the use of symbols. At this stage of growth, vocabulary develops, and memory and imagination broaden. Pedagogy is a term relating to the process of interaction between teacher and learner and home and community. A fundamental principle in early childhood pedagogy is the importance of play to children’s learning and development (Saracho and Spodek, 2002). Children learn through play and develop skills that will help them with talking, listening, reading and writing. Early childhood care and education children, usually aged 3 to 5, both in groups and individually, are involved with activities related to various aspects of their development, such as motor skills, social and emotional development, and language development. Preschool teachers along with parents have a vital role to play in the development of children. Documentation The early years are extremely important in terms of physical, social, intellectual and emotional growth of children. Observation of children and maintaining their portfolios, is an established practice in many early childhood programs (Katz and Chard, 1996). Documentation (or learning stories) provides objective descriptions, or anecdotes, of children's behaviour written by the teacher. It helps those involved in early childhood teaching deepen their understanding of the multifaceted learning-teaching process (Broadhead, 2006). Documentation helps the teacher to reflect upon and understand what the child is thinking and learning, through intellectual, emotional and social interaction with others. Using the method of documentation, the teacher gathers information about a child’s ideas through relevant tit-bits and using a variety of tools to record the words and actions while the child is engaged in play. According to Alcock (2000), “When teachers use documentation pedagogically, they simultaneously engage in researching their own practice, in researching children’s experiences, in planning meaningful curriculum for them and in developing professionally.” The portfolio in the preschool or day-care scenario is a record of a child’s cognition development. It provides important details of how a child thinks, questions, analyses, synthesises, produces, and creates. Documentation and assessment in the day-care are significantly different from those maintained in the case of school children. Maintaining a preschooler’s portfolio enables the teacher/caregiver/parent to observe the development of the child over a period of time, besides helping the teacher understand the interests, attitudes and range of skills of the child. Young children learn most effectively when they are engaged in interaction rather than in merely receptive or passive activities (Bruner, 1999; Wood & Bennett, 1999). The portfolio records a systematic observation of the child by the teacher when the child is engaged in solitary activity, or while playing in small groups, in large groups, at different times of the day and under different situations. According to Grace (1992) the observation must be conducted in an objective, selective and unobtrusive manner, and recorded carefully. The entry each day should summarise the teacher’s observations. Several methods of portfolio organisation are possible, and one of them is following chronological order and category. Appropriate assessment of the child’s development involves observation and comparison of the child’s progress over time. The conclusions drawn by the teacher regarding a child's achievement should have a strong basis in the stages of development of a child. However, portfolios should not be used to compare one child with another (Grace, 1992). Until the introduction of Te Whāriki in 1996 as New Zealand’s early childhood curriculum, Piaget’s hypothesis that development precedes learning formed the basis of assessment. Te Whāriki, on the other hand, lays emphasis on Vygotsky’s development model which suggests that learning precedes development. This means that a teacher works closely with a child in areas of interest to the child, and making an effort to help the child to progress and become more competent. According to Te Whāriki, “assessment of children’s learning and development involves intelligent observation of the children by experienced and knowledgeable adults” (MOE, 1996, p.29). Furthermore, Te Whāriki defines assessment as “The process of obtaining and interpreting information that describes a child’s achievements and competence. The purpose of assessment is to provide pertinent information to contribute and improve learning opportunities for children.” (MOE, 1996, p.99). Effective assessment of learning, as defined by Kei Tua o te Pae, is a daily exercise involving “noticing, recognising and responding to children’s learning. It is formative in that it effects learning and teaching.  It requires knowledgeable practitioners that understand children’s learning. It includes and actively involves children and their families/whānau.” (MOE, 2010, http://www.educate.ece.govt.nz/learning/ curriculumAndLearning/Assessmentforlearning.aspx). Carr (1998) also mentions documentation, and revisiting and sharing the learning stories with the children and their families, in addition to noticing, recognising and responding as the defining factors of learning assessment. Continuity, acknowledgement of uncertainty, accepting learning as a complex process, protecting and promoting the motivation to learn, listening to children, learning dispositions and schema are some of the other attributes of assessment for learning (apart from documentation of formative assessment, noticing, recognizing and responding) that are in consonance with the principles of Te Whāriki. Documentation and assessment are, therefore, important elements in achieving continuity, progress and flexibility in the teaching and learning of preschoolers. They provide a basis for the planning of the subsequent stages in the child’s learning. Portfolio 1. Analysis of What learning is happening here? The teacher has wordlessly placed the paints and paper on the table, generating curiosity in Mitchell who comes and stands near the table. Curiosity encourages exploration; and, exploration leads to discovery, which denotes learning. In the course of this activity, Mitchell has expanded his vocabulary with the word, “dots”. Besides, the rewarding approval of the teacher (saying “wow”) has been noted by Mitchell. This is clear from the expected surge of pleasure demonstrated by Mitchell when he responded also with a “wow”, which is a good sign because approval helps build confidence and self-esteem. However, the teacher’s assessment of “General release from tension” seems unfounded. Mitchell’s connecting with Sage is an important indicator of development of his social-emotional skills. Like walking and talking, developing social-emotional skills is an important milestone children achieve in the first three years of life (Huitt and Hummel, 2003). The portfolio "supports, rather than threatens, children’s feelings of self-esteem” (Gestwicki, 1995) which is also evident from the fact that Mitchell wants to revisit it several times a day. The second and third pages of the portfolio reveal that Mitchell is trying to create authentic partnerships with another child (Sage) and with family (Naa) which the document has failed to assess. Mitchell has shown certain dispositions such as curiosity and friendliness. Dispositions, it must be remembered, are different from skills or items of knowledge (Katz, 1995). Also, dispositions are not acquired through formal instruction or exhortation; they are learned primarily from being with people who demonstrate them. Dispositions such as curiosity, creativity, cooperation, friendliness etc. in particular, are strengthened by appreciation rather than reward (Kohn, 1993). Where to next? Before planning other activities, the teacher could draw a line and help Mitchell learn another word, “line”. He can also be encouraged to demonstrate further his knowledge of colours, since he has already recognised red. Portfolio 2 Analysis: Apart from what the teacher has assessed, it is evident that Mitchell, now around 3 years of age, has also learnt some basic mathematical calculations to measure things, for example, addition and subtraction. His quick calculations while making sandcastles are proof of this. He is also adept at “reverse addition” and knows that taking one away from 7 gives him 6 fruit. They are also indicators of his critical thinking skills. Mitchell was successful in problem solving (that is, changing the number of fruits he had picked up to 6 from 7) on account of his basic knowledge of mathematical concepts. Mitchell has also learnt that water can wash things away. By making playdough and enjoying it, Mitchell has learnt the concept of creativity and that creativity can be fun. He has learnt to patiently await his turn at stirring the playdough, an indication that he is past the infant stage which, according to Piaget’s classification (Huitt, and Hummel, 2003), is characterised by egocentric behaviour. The self-portrait drawn by Mitchell shows that he has a good concept of the geometric shape of his face. It displays good awareness of the concept of self, and also, fairly well-developed fine motor skills required for drawing. However, had the teacher made him colour the hair and eyes using crayons, it would have increased his level of self-concept by helping him focus on specific attributes or features about himself. This concept of Categorical Self promotes an awareness of self as an object that can be perceived by others. “Where to next?” In recognising the skills demonstrated by Mitchell, the teacher has applied her professional expertise and judgment. To consolidate what Mitchell has achieved thus far and promote his cognitive development, the teacher has planned further activity. The teacher could also introduce counting rhymes and chants to develop Mitchell’s mathematical skills further. This is also the right time to introduce activities that promote measuring skills. For instance, he could learn to differentiate between long and short (aspects of length) with the help of twigs of different sizes, and also enhance his vocabulary and language skills with these words. Grouping concrete objects such as fruits is one way of learning the concept of classification and the teacher should include such activity. Classification skills lead to the development of logical thinking and abstract concepts right from early childhood, besides promoting vocabulary-concept development (Carr, 1990). Portfolio 3 Analysis: The documentation of Mitchell imitating Naa is a pointer to the social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura (1977), which emphasises the importance of children's imitation of the behaviour of others (that is, their models). It shows a pattern of behaviour in Mitchell which is an example of schema learning requiring sufficient motivation, good observation to pay close attention to the precise actions required to work on the activity and intense concentration, all of which Mitchell displays in ample measure. This imitative behaviour improves the thinking process. Piaget strongly believed that children primarily learn through imitation (Huitt and Hummel, 2003). Role playing came again to the fore in Mitchell helping him develop more self-confidence and imagination. The teacher has assessed Mitchel’s progress mainly through the lens of maths and arts. To the range of Mitchell’s skills listed by the teacher should be added the great progress he has made in respect of his vocabulary, expression (“long necklace to the sky” to denote very long), and imagination, all denoting perhaps a gifted child. He also showed that he could connect wool to warmth and wind to chill. His wearing a girl’s hat shows that he has not yet reached the stage of self-awareness whereby he identifies himself wholly with the boys. Lastly, mathematical skills may be his forte, but his writing skills are not as highly developed yet. In fact, he does not seem to enjoy it as seen from the fact that he left the task of colouring the numbers unfinished. The teacher should shorten the writing task to number1 to 10 and see whether Mitchell does a better job of it. “Where to next?” The activity that is planned should have scope for flexibility since very often it is the child who decides what to learn and when. The teacher has to acknowledge this uncertainty which has been described eloquently by Gordon Wells (1999) as “From a teacher’s perspective, one is always aiming at a moving target.” Portfolio 4 Analysis: Mitchell has shown immense self-confidence while constructing the “gate”. He is confident of his own knowledge in the matter, and also being aware of the dangers involved (e.g., possibility of hurting himself through the hammer), he is careful in handling the hammer. Thus, it is revealed that he has achieved good neuro-muscular development. As recommended by Kei Tua o te Pae, the teacher has actively involved Mitchell’s family that is, Aunt Naa in the assessment process, thereby showing a strong commitment to working collaboratively with the family. Adequate neuro-muscular development of Mitchell is once again evident when he displays his mastery over the monkey bars, having failed at it a few months earlier. This is a pointer to the fact that the brain development is the fastest until age 3 as also to another fact which is that motivation hastens learning in children. The teacher has recognised this and provided him the necessary opportunity, as well as encouragement and appreciation by taking photographs of him on the monkey bars. Mitchell seems to have gained even more confidence as he went along which prompted him to try out other tricks successfully. The presence of the teacher close at hand provided the necessary feeling of security. Building a castle by carefully selecting and balancing each block again reveals good neuro-muscular coordination in Mitchell. Through the building of the castle the teacher has provided another opportunity that encourages him to develop his creativity. Conclusion The documentation and assessment of Mitchell’s early childhood progress in day-care has been done by the teacher generally through the lens of maths and art. The teacher has obtained feedback from the family wherever necessary. Praise enhances motivation to perform but not necessarily to learn. The document has brought out Mitchell’s relationship with Sage (a friend), Naa and Robbie (aunt and father), peers and teacher. However, it is not evident from the Learning Stories that the teacher has brought continuity of ideas into Mitchell’s learning except when Mitchell made a “gate” as an extension of his father’s hobby of carpentry. The teacher has generally promoted schema learning in Mitchell through actions, that is sensory-motor exploration. This also links to the disposition strand of “exploration” in Te Whāriki (Carr, 1998). The scaffolding provided by the teacher enabled Mitchell to accomplish tasks such as beading and hammering without hurting oneself, that require fine motor control. The teacher, however, has not made any attempt to encourage early literacy in Mitchell, for example, by going through the motions of documenting in consultation with the child. References Alcock, S., 2000. Pedagogical documentation : Why? What? And whom? Early Education, 18: 7-10. Bandura, A., 1977. Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press. Braden-Clarke, C., 2007. Early childhood education is vital. Evansville Courier & Press. Retrieved May 7, 2010 from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-14206301.html Broadhead, P., 2006. Developing an understanding of young children’s learning through play: the place of observation, interaction and reflection. British Educational Research Journal, 32(2): 191-207. Bruner, J. (1999). Keynote address. In Global Perspectives on Early Childhood Education, a workshop sponsored by the Committee on Early Childhood Pedagogy, National Academy of Sciences, and the National Research Council, Washington, DC. PS 027 463, pp. 9-18. Carr, K.S., 1990. How Can We Teach Critical Thinking? Eric Digest 326304, Retrieved May 8, 2010 from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/critical.htm   Carr, M., 1998. Assessing children’s experiences in early childhood. Final report to the Ministry of Education, Part 1. Wellington: Ministry of Education, New Zealand. Gestwicki, C., 1995. Developmentally appropriate practice: Curriculum and development in early education. Albany, NY: Thomson Delmar. Quoted by Huffman, P.D. Retrieved May 8, 2010 from http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=495 Wells, G., 1999. Quoted by MOE, Ministry of Education, 1996. Grace, C., 1992. The portfolio and its use: developmentally appropriate assessment of young children. Eric Digest, 351150. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education Urbana IL. Retrieved May 8, 2010 from http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-1/use.htm Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved May 8, 2010 from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/piaget.html JAMA and Archives Journals (2010). Early childhood experiences have lasting emotional and psychological effects. ScienceDaily. Retrieved May 10, 2010, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2010/05/100503161332.htm Katz, L.G., 1995. Dispositions in early childhood education. In L. G. Katz (Ed.), Talks with teachers of young children. A collection. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Eric Digest 380 232. Katz, L.G. & Chard, S.C., 1996. The Contribution of Documentation to the Quality of Early Childhood Education. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education Urbana IL. Retrieved May 8, 2010 from http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/quality.htm Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise, and other bribes. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Quoted by Katz, L.G., 1999. 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International Journal of Early Years Education, 9 (3): 229-43. Read More