Kindergartners Journey in Language Development - Literature review Example

Kindergarteners’ Journey in Language Development The Kindergarten years are a time in a child’s life when language rapidly develops. The five to six year old child is at the age when he is gaining more independence with the skills he is acquiring as well as gaining more influence from his peers and other adults around him. Kindergarteners use language for many purposes (Otto, 2010) such as telling stories that may be real from their own experiences, or contrived from their imaginations; directing stories; expressing pride; obtaining help when needed; sharing experiences in varied social settings; and developing conversational skills. A child at this stage can have more than 1,500 words in his vocabulary and may grow in every new experience especially with other people (Otto, 2010). This just proves that language development is a process that involves socialization. Clay (1998) posits that all children must take an active part in negotiating meanings. Piaget and Vygotsky, key people in the study of language and thought, believe that development will not take place unless children engage in rich, meaningful conversations with others. In doing so, they internalize language to more complex thinking (Neuman & Roskos, 1993). Both Piaget and Vygotsky uphold that through language, children begin to decipher particular words from objects or actions and then words begin to stand for ideas. Next, thought begins to take on a symbolic function. In general, kindergarten children develop an interest in the functional characteristics of spoken and written language. Their ability to hear and distinguish various sounds of language gradually emerges (Berk, 2006). They possess a growing vocabulary that enables them to talk about their experiences and express their ideas more clearly. These children show a fascination with the community and the world around them, and use words as representations for people, objects, emotions, and ideas. The children’s symbolic thinking skills also extend to performing pretend roles and situations. Moreover, the emergence of their understanding of print and knowledge of letters and words; the ability to listen, comprehend and interpret stories that are read aloud; and an increasing appreciation for books reading and writing skills of kindergarteners characterize their language development (Neuman & Roskos, 1993). Otto (2010) discusses an overview of kindergarteners’ phonetic knowledge. Considering his hearing and verbal mechanisms are normal, a typical five year old has mastered many phonemes already, enabling him to produce many well-pronounced words. He is interested in rhythm and rhyme and may even be aware of alliteration as he enjoys playing with words. Being more conscious of speech, he may point out differences in the way other children pronounce words, like those with foreign accents. When children focus on letter-sound connections when they attempt to read words, evidence of their phonetic knowledge come to place. (Otto, 2010). Asked to “read” a familiar storybook, some children try to sound out each word they encounter in print. However, when they find it difficult to do so, they may refuse to read altogether. This shows that they know how the print is the source of the message, but they just cannot decode it. This refusal to read indicates their awareness and importance of decoding “real” reading words. Those who persist in decoding often consult adults if their attempts are correct (Otto, 2010). This awareness of phonetics also manifests in written language (Otto, 2010). Kindergartners who have learned to hold their writing instruments and have developed adequate fine motor skills from preschool may now begin to use print or print-like forms to create their own stories or convey messages to others. They may even attempt to read written messages by focusing on letter-sound relationships. This emerging interest in learning how to read and write is a sign that they are way to becoming literate. Venezky, et al (1990) provides an elaborate explanation of literacy, emphasizing writing as well as reading: “Literacy is a minimal ability to read and write in a designated language, as well as a mindset or way of thinking about the use of reading and writing in everyday life. It differs from simple reading and writing in its assumption of an understanding of the appropriate uses of these abilities within a print-based society. Literacy, therefore, requires active, autonomous engagement with print and stresses the role of the individual in generating as well as receiving and assigning independent interpretations to messages.” (p. 142) Emergent literacy is the term used to refer to the earliest period of a child’s literacy development, specifically the time between birth and the time when the child can read and write (Sulzby and Teale, 1991). According to emergent literacy theories, the child is the central figure in the construction of learning. His life experiences directly affect his literacy. One theoretical perspective in the area of emergent literacy is that children are innately predisposed to becoming literate especially if they live in a literary-rich environment – lots of books, pictures, films, software, educational posters, etc. The activities planned all expose the children to such an environment, including technology, which is very much a part of the children’s lives right now. Piaget (1959) also has something to contribute to the theoretical perspective of literacy. According to him, children’s interaction with the environment encourages literacy. Such interaction brings about learning, as concepts are constructed or changed, usually, differing from adult concepts. Still, Vygotsky (1962) inspires another perspective, as he theorized that a child learns literacy through conversation and involvement in literacy acts with an adult. The interaction between adult and child is ‘scaffolding’. This occurs when a knowledgeable adult gently guides a child through successive literacy activities while relinquishing autonomy little by little to the child until such time he can manage on his own. How should young children be encouraged to develop their literacy skills? Educators use different approaches to help children become literate. One contemporary approach is the Whole Language Approach. It emphasizes a holistic, meaning-based and context-based approach in linking printed text with spoken language. This theory does not advocate isolated skills such as sounding out individual letter sounds then combining them to say a word. The whole language approach claims that language and literacy are integrated systems and specific components of language such as sounds of each letter are not isolated (Norris & Hoffman, 1993). Another literacy approach is the Phonetic approach, which contradicts the Whole language approach because it emphasizes phonological awareness training. This approach puts much value on the provision of specific focused opportunities to practice segmenting words into phonemes, blending phonemes into words and learning to rhyme (Norris & Hoffman, 1993). Although the whole language approach and the phonetic approach seem to be opposing camps, there is good reason to suggest an integration of both for more effective literacy development. We can call this the Balanced Approach. Watkins & Bunce (1996) gives the rationale: “On the one hand, because the process of literacy acquisition occurs through natural, meaningful experiences with print and reading, these experiences should play a role in efforts to facilitate such skills(Whole Language approach). On the other hand, because phonological awareness contributes to early reading achievement, some focus on particular phonological awareness abilities appears warranted (Phonics or Phonetic approach). Thus, a rationale exists for integrating whole language and phonological awareness perspectives in attempts to promote literacy proficiency in young children (Balanced approach).” (n.p.) The Balanced approach not only combines the good qualities of the Whole language and the Phonetic theories, but also applies practical measures in its implementation. Aside from teaching children the basics of letter sounds and combining them to create words, it engages children in a variety of learning experiences that highlight language development – storytelling, cooking activities following a recipe, field trips then writing about where they went, etc. (Brewer, 2001) In creating a developmentally appropriate curriculum for kindergarteners, the developmental levels of the children determine the lessons that must be unique to their own needs and class level. Otto (2010) suggests the provision of balance between whole group, small group and independent and teacher-directed activities. Although Kindergarteners manifest “increased attention spans and listening vocabularies making it possible for them to participate in more group settings, it is still important to limit large group activities to a small part of the total schedule” (p. 259). These young children still need a lot of one-on-one instruction with teacher or small group activities with selected peers to hone their skills under close supervision. “The most successful kindergarten curricula provide a gradual transition from informal learning activities to learning activities involving direct instruction in whole group settings that characterize the primary grades” (Otto, 2010, p. 259). At Kindergarten, young children get to experience more and more difficult activities that prepare them for the challenges of primary school. Hence, it is important for teachers to be firm in their resolve to achieve curricular goals that help them select and implement the learning activities that are developmentally appropriate for their Kindergarten students’ development, with the vision that these activities have long-range implications. Otto (2010) has defined some specific goals for enhancing language development in Kindergarteners: One goal is to increase the children’s ability to communicate verbally in instructional and conversational settings. Not only should children be good communicators in the scope of the classroom, but in practical conversation outside, with their families and friends. Another goal is to encourage awareness for the purposes of reading and writing. Children will be able to appreciate their literacy skills more when they realize that these are usable in their daily routines or usual activities with their families like shopping for specific items in the grocery, making lists or writing letters to relatives who live far away. Increasing vocabulary and listening comprehension through conceptual development is another curriculum goal when children are exposed to literature. Finally, the goal of increasing children’s awareness of the process of communicating by using written language is evident when children show the interest and initiative to create their own stories and document these in print. These goals guide teachers in the provision of “a wide variety of learning activities that incorporate independent, exploratory experiences as well as teacher-directed activities” (Otto, 2010, p. 260). To fulfill these goals, I suggest the following activities to be included in a developmentally appropriate curriculum for Kindergarteners. These are just some, as there is a wide array of activities to choose from in a variety of sources. Exploratory activities in school can foster language development, as children can discover things together and verbally share their observations and insights about the activity (Otto, 2010). Classrooms must be equipped with a Dramatic play area. Here, they can orally express ideas with their peers and teachers for the role-playing activities that go on there. Puppets, a small telephone toy and a mirror to reflect their play encourages interaction among the children. Even the quiet, shy children can voice out their insights. A drawing and writing center filled with various kinds and sizes of papers and writing instruments entice young children to capture their thoughts on their drawing or on print. They can write letters to each other or to their families or create their own books. They can get ideas from real books in their mini-library, which classrooms for young children must always have. This is a simple collection of various picture books and storybooks children can read placed in a special corner of the room. This is more inviting with a rug, soft pillows or even a small rocking chair. All these learning centers encourage language development (Brewer, 2001). To improve verbal communication skills, teachers may ask children to recall words in a song or finger play. They also need to be able to follow simple directions. Using words to explain ideas and feelings should be a more familiar practice to them as they grow older. They should also be able to participate in discussions like Show and Tell activities, and given plenty of opportunities to communicate with their peers during their daily activities. Using puppets or self-made books are some simple activities to draw out their thoughts and feelings verbally, as they share their ideas to their classmates (Brewer, 2001). To develop beginning reading skills and encourage children to demonstrate an interest in books, children should have at least one story read to them everyday. Teachers must demonstrate established reading rules such as reading lines from left to right and from the top to the bottom of the page. Interpreting what happened to the story read and being able to arrange pictures of the story from beginning to end checks for their comprehension skills. Of course, at this age, they must also be familiar with the letters of the alphabet and know its purpose. To enhance beginning writing skills, children may create representational drawings, copy recognizable letters, simple words and numbers. They should already recognize written names, be able to label pictures with corresponding words and demonstrate an interest in writing for a purpose such as making signs or sending letters. (Dichelmiller et al, 2001; Dodge and Colker, 1993). Reading and writing activities planned for Kindergarteners do not only stimulate the readers’ critical and creative thinking skills but also encourage socialization with their peers. The learning games, as well as a sense of cooperation and competition foster team spirit. The activities incorporate elements of fun as they help the learners retain the concepts better when associated with positive feelings. “Reading is about creating worlds with words. The only way to read with fluency and expressiveness is to read closely hooked into the unfolding meaning of the text. It is very important, therefore, that we do everything possible to support the mind work of reading.” (Calkins, 1997, p.159). Storytelling is one essential activity each Kindergarten classroom should have. Children’s stories are valuable because they present so many benefits to a child’s development. Otto (2010) discusses that effective storybook reading techniques involve three parts namely pre-reading, reading and post-reading. These stages are equally important in the appreciation of a story. Before reading a book, the teacher must be able to entice the children to listen to the story as she introduces the book. She should talk about the title of the book and encourage children to predict what the book conveys. During this time, the teacher establishes the need to listen with a purpose. While reading the story, the teacher should pause occasionally to ask comprehension questions to check if the children have understood the story so far. She may also involve the children in predicting upcoming events or commenting what has happened in the story so far. Upon finishing the story, the events are reviewed and the children may be engaged in making connections between the story and their life experiences. Follow up activities such as drawing scenes from the story or “writing” part of it in the child’s own version will strengthen the concept that words are expressed in print too. Teachers may talk about letters by name and sounds while matching it to pictures. A literacy-rich environment filled with print and pictures would stimulate a child’s interest in reading and writing. It is important for teachers to provide their students lots of opportunities for literacy-related play activities such as role-playing, bookmaking, filling out story charts, and experimentation with writing on their own. The teacher can help a child recognize how print works by demonstrating directionality and discussing the differences between the information obtained from the pictures in books and the printed words (Brewer, 2001). Shared reading sessions are opportunities to expose children to the process of reading text. The whole group comprehends the stories together. Shared reading provides many opportunities for incidental learning about the way written language works. Fountas & Pinnell, (1996) lists several benefits of Shared reading. Among them are building previous experiences with books; providing language models; expanding vocabulary; laying a foundation for guided and independent reading. It also supports children who are on the verge of reading so that they can enjoy participating in reading whole stories. It provides an opportunity for the teacher to demonstrate phrased fluent reading and to draw attention to critical concepts about print, providing a context for learning specific words and features of words, and helping children become familiar with texts that they can use independently as resources for writing and reading. Shared reading provides readers a good support system. Readers can help each other as they read the text. They can work and read as a group or team to solve problems that they may encounter as they read the text. They can work on meaning of words that they cannot understand and even share their opinion with concepts found in the book. A lot of conversation may take place as they read and they can share their thoughts and experience. As in “read-alouds”, the teacher draws the children into the story and begins conversations for children to become active participants. Language development in Kindergarten includes the development of semantic and syntactic knowledge of words and sentences. As their vocabularies increase, so does their syntactic information (knowledge of words used as nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, etc.). They exhibit ability in constructing basic sentences with little difficulty, with the average sentence length for five-year olds having five to seven words (Otto, 2010). Increases in syntactic knowledge allow young children to communicate more and more complex ideas with other people. Indeed, the language of development of Kindergartners entails several details parents and educators need to consider in planning a developmentally appropriate program. At their age, adults must take advantage of their eagerness to learn so they maximize their potentials in their language skills. They need to know that language has many purposes that they need to use wisely in their life’s journey. References Beaty, J.J. (2009), 50 Early childhood literacy strategies, Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp. 54-55. Berk, L. (2006) Child Development, 7th edn, Pearson, Allyn & Bacon, Boston. Brewer, J. (2001) Introduction to early childhood education. Allyn & Bacon. Clay, M.(1998) By Different Paths to Common Outcomes, Stenhouse Publishers, Maine, pp. 5-32 Dichtelmiller, Margo, Judy Jablon, Dorothea Marsden, and Samuel Meisels (200). Omnibus guidelines: preschool through third grade, 4th ed. New York: Pearson Education Inc. Dodge, Diane, and Laura Colker. 1992. The creative curriculum for early childhood, 3rd ed. Washington: Teaching Strategies Inc. Fountas, I. C. and Pinnell, G. S. (1996). Guided Reading, Good First Teaching for All Children. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Neuman, S. B., & Roskos, K. A. (1993) Language and literacy learning in the early years: An integrated approach, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Fort Worth, TX, pp. 27-31, 34-61. Norris, J., & Hoffman, P. (1993). Whole Language Intervention for School-age Children. San Diego: Singular Press. Otto, B. (2010). Language development in early childhood (3rd edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Piaget, J. (1959) The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge & Kegen Paul. Sulzby, E. & Teale, W.H. (1991) “Emergent Literacy.” In R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, P., Mosenthal & P.D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research Volume II. New York: Longman. Venezky, R., Wagner, D. & Ciliberti, B. (Eds.) (1990) Toward Defining Literacy, Newark, DE; International Reading Association. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language (E. Hanfmann and G. Vaker, Eds & Trans.) Cambridge, M.A.: MIT Press Watkins, R. V., & Bunce, B. H. (1996). Promoting language and literacy skills in preschool classrooms. Invited presentation, Kansas Division for Early Childhood, Manhattan Read More