Roots of Modern Education in China Italy and the United States - Research Paper Example

Roots of Modern Education in China, Italy, and the United States Introduction Since centuries, education has remained a fundamental and important component of human societies that allowed the humans to develop and advance in almost every possible field. It is an observation that until few centuries ago, there was focus on only the matter of education; however, in recent decades, scholars and educators have commenced to broaden their focus from subject to different other aspects of the education sectors that is enabling them to improve and enhance effectiveness in efficient manner. This paper is part of such contemporary series that is putting efforts to identify and discuss the education systems from various and diverse perspectives. In specific, this paper will endeavor to describe and discuss the route of roots of modern education systems in the context of different countries that will allow a comprehensive understanding of the topic. In order to understand the organization of the different modern educational systems, and higher education in particular, an analysis of its roots is fundamental. The foundation of the current organizational institutions that has the responsibility to deliver and enhance knowledge in students and improve society traces back to many centuries ago. However, it is an observation that these systems have developed diversely based on different social, political, religious, and cultural factors in the different regions. In specific, for this study, researcher has chosen China, Italy, and the United States as they represent the history of education in three continents: Asia, Europe, and America. For this purpose, it is very imperative to understand the notion of education that is a dynamic and flexible process molded according to the needs of a community or of a group of people in power. Such understanding is very essential and will be valuable in studying differences and similarities of education systems of abovementioned countries. In this paper, the emphasis will fall upon the effects of some philosophical influences in these three countries, in order to apprehend the basis of some contemporary academic and intellectual phenomena. Such an analysis also aims at regarding these educational systems as part of a global process that exists in the era of communication and worldwide mobility. Discussions over the significance of education in the development of certain communities have presented interesting outcomes that facilitate scholars, learners, and researchers to compare, criticize, and combine historical facts to establish connections between the past and the present in education objectively. China Analysis of the literature related to Chinese education system has indicated that distinction between northern and southern region of the country is essential to understand the development process of education system in China. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica online, “During the Shang era, educational practices were in effect very complex at an early date” (Beecher, 2009). In specific, the Shang era dates back to more than 3,000 years ago that indicates the antiquity of Chinese education system. Moral character and secular education were some of the key characteristics of the Chinese educational system in which, “harmonious human relations, rituals, and music formed the curriculum” (Beecher, 2010). In ancient China, oral tradition was imperative as it represented a conventional practice that enabled their values and moral principles to travel from one generation to another, and so on. In addition, “education was regarded as the process of individual development” (Beecher, 2009). A very influential Chinese intellectual that influenced education in China, as well as in other parts of the globe world, is Confucius (551 BCE – 478 BCE). According to Confucius (2009), people should avoid all excesses and extreme passions - Golden Means, and must improve themselves prior to the society (Beecher, 2009). This thinker also defended that education should exist for all regardless of social status, or any other type of discrimination, thus, education for all (Confucius, 2009). Based on the principles of Confucius, the primary function of the education was provision of proper methodology for training exemplary persons (junzi). This process of training individuals involved constant self-improvement and continuous social interaction, as conventional educators believed that education must involve morality and should create superior man that will avoid violence, as well as dogmatic and uneven assumptions (Confucius, 2009). Nowadays, many Confucius centers are functioning in different parts of China and Europe with the motive of promoting the Chinese cultural values and principles. One example of this practice is the Confucius centre in the City of Braga, Portugal, which not only develops programs to educate people about the Chinese culture. However, also provides financial aid to students coming from low-income backgrounds intending to study Chinese language and culture in Portugal or China. Swindall (2007) questioned the idea of "metamorphosis" of Chinese higher education, taking into account the country's indigenous tradition of higher education, and its subsequent reforms under Western, republican, and Soviet influences. This author also mentioned that the centralized system of higher education in China imposed in the 1950s revealed itself as inadequate “for supplying talent after economic reconstruction and social progress several decades later” (Swindall, 2007). It is an observation that the outcome of influence of a close regime was lack of public participation in matters concerning “higher education, administrative barriers from inflexible departmental and regional boundaries” (Swindall, 2007, p. 1). The universities were extremely similar in the way of their organization, as well as the curricula that were monotonous, resulting in misuse of resources awfully (Swindall, 2007). However, the country is now experiencing a new era of changes in the policies of the higher education that is involving discussion, decentralizations, and more participation from individuals of different professional backgrounds. Moreover, analysis has pointed out increment in the number of private institutions of higher education and scholarships in China following by passing of a new legislation related to foreign partnerships in the country. Furthermore, the contemporary era has brought a number of alterations in the practices of Chinese education system. Since 2004, Chinese educators are putting efforts to commence new joint ventures with academic institutions from abroad that have become a usual practice in education sectors all over the globe. In addition, there has been an increase in the salaries of teachers and professional in the education sector; however, experts have argued that present remuneration is still less as compared with earnings of individuals teaching in Western countries. In response, Chinese government has defended the idea, “motivation with money to the promotion of values and cultural spirit on campus” (Swindall, 2007, p.2). The current alterations in the education system in China are good indications of recovery of values of the ancient Chinese traditions that focused on community and freedom of the individuals. Italy Now the paper will endeavor to discuss some of the aspects of Italian education system that will enable its comparison with Chinese education system. Until the year 1923, the Casati Law of 1859 controlled the education system in Italy that “organized the school system on the French plan of centralized control” (Mann, 2009). However, after 1923, reformation brought changes that enabled the state to take back its control over schools that resulted in the commencement of a series of state exams at the end of each course of studies, both for private and public schools to assess students’ knowledge of specific subjects (Mann, 2009). Besides schooling system, on the higher education level, it is essential for students to complete the “upper secondary alternatives” (Mann, 2009), in order to enter university. Students’ programs at the university require the completion of several state exams that subsequently provides the “title of dottore” (Mann, 2009) to the successful students. Despite state investments in the education sector, one of the biggest challenges posed to the Italian education system is the existence of “fragmentation and lack of articulation” (Mann, 2009), as well as the problem of students’ achievements from lower to the academic level, causing regional discrepancies in the country. Different stances regarding the educational systems from politicians and religious entities tend to make implementation of changes difficult. Besides issues, Italy produced many important thinkers that successfully influenced education sectors and pedagogical methods all over the globe in the past. Amongst these thinkers, artists, and philosophers, Maria Montessori is still an imperative contributor to the changes in education, who enabled transformation of teaching methodologies from conservative to ultramodern, the Montessori Method (Montessori, 2009). Montessori lived between 1870 and 1952, created the Casa Del Bambini (The Children’s Home) (Montessori, 2009) that contributed enormously for the promotion of early childhood education. In this system, biological and mental growth relates more to the chief components in education of self-motivation and auto-education ((Montessori, 2009). According to the Montessori Method, the child has the right to get treatment as an individual (Montessori, 2009). In order to achieve such levels of autonomy, the child should get education in a friendly environment based on their age group and thinking patterns. Currently, the Italian government is putting considerable efforts to give special attention towards providing curricular support to students with specific characteristics, such as special needs, as well as students with IQ above the average. In addition, there has been increment in the research on environmental factors, problems of cultural disadvantages, and class and minority groups (Comunian, 2000). The United States Finally, the paper will now include analysis of education system of the leaders in education system, the United States that has played an influential role and contributed enormously for the improvement of many sectors of public life including health and education (Hofstadter & Hardy, 1952). Historically, the first settlers, Puritans discovered the American land in the year 1620 to escape and avoid effects of persecution in England. Specifically, in the area of education, earlier American system was religious in scope, keeping in view their belief that life should centered on worship (Tehie, 2007). In this regard, the studies and implications of Puritans were very strict in terms of their morals and values, and revolved around the notion of sin that is observable in the books that reflect these principles. For instance, during earlier period, the students “studied the Lord’s Prayer at the bottom of the hornbook” (Tehie, 2007). Still, penmanship is an important part of early elementary levels in the USA. Without any doubts, the United States is the country of opportunities and freedom. From this aspect, the USA has been a significant platform for many thinkers, philosophers, and educators that resulted in their contribution in the development of a diversified education system in the United States. Horace Mann is one of the leading names in the area of education in USA, lived between the 18th and 19th centuries, and confronted an environment of poverty, hardship, and self-denial. Comparatively, poor teachers taught him briefly and erratically, but he managed to educate himself (Mann, 2009). This thinker promoted the notion of education for all, rich and the poor, girls and boys, including children of other nationalities as well. This promoted the idea of a fundamental uniformity of human nature in all nations, and in other words, this notion encouraged consideration of free and universal education based on democratic methods, well-trained professional teachers, and moral principles. Moreover, he endorsed another important principle in education that is the clear perception of practicality of co-education, and the importance of academic standards of the college. Emma Willard is another example of the contribution of Americans in the education sector that focused primarily on the principles of equality and gender equality in particular. This thinker lived in the 19th century and got the opportunity to benefit from an environment of learning. Although she had no access to a formal education because of her gender; however, independently, she put efforts to learn Latin, philosophy, and mathematics (Mann, 2009). Willard’s main contributions to the foundations of the American way of thinking and education in particular were the conception of a liberal arts curriculum and the need of a systematic study of pedagogy. She also promoted the teaching of history and geography using audiovisual aids, such as charts and maps (Murphy, 2005). Presently, ‘the American System of Higher Education’ is confronted a number of challenges due to the contemporary alterations in the social and political sectors. Janine Tehie says that the status of a career in education in modern United States has decreased adversely, and parents are more skeptical about allowing their children to enroll in these types of courses. Consequently, teacher shortage is a problem as “teaching continues to be poorly regarded by many” (Tehie, 2007). Funding of public institutions of higher education, lack of motivation, claims of uneven opportunities to women and minority groups are some of the problems of modern American educational system (Tehie, 2007). In this regard, there is an urgent need to acquire effective mechanisms for an integration of handicapped students, teaching, and learning of mathematics and sciences as the main priorities for the subsequent decades. In the book, ‘How Colleges Work’, Birnmaum (1988) states, “learning how colleges and universities work requires seeing them as organizations, as systems, and as inventions.” According to Birnbaum (1988), “administrative authority is predicated on the control and coordination of activities by superiors; professional authority is predicated on autonomy and individual knowledge.” As a result, these two types of authority are in mutual disagreement that required “recognition of the supremacy of administrative authority” (Birnbaum, 1988, p. 10). In addition, it is an observation that some of the other problems existing in the American universities relate more to the management of large and more complex organizational structures. Moreover, in many cases, the system has become more bureaucratized, and “administrative rules, actions, and decisions are formulated in writing” (Birnbaum, 1988, p. 109). Birnbaum (1988, pp. 109) further argued, “For uniform application of rules, there has to be a written record of their interpretation in the future.” In response of this argument, a number of academic institutions in the country are endeavoring to implement similar practice, in order to provide access of all information by ensuring effective communication between all the elements of the institution. One of the other significant points valuable for the American education system that Birnmaum discussed in his book is governance that he defined as “the structures and processes through which institutional participants interact with and influence each other and communicate with the larger environment” (Birnbaum, 1988, p.4). He further suggested, “Rules and regulations become the important mediators of interaction, and administrators become specialists in distinctive areas” (Birnbaum, 1988, p. 109). Constraints Birnmaum (1988) identified some institutional and organizational constraints, namely environmental (Federal and State control) that limit the influence of administrators in American universities. However, in organizational systems with focus on projects and research, funding is fundamental for the maintenance of different processes of the systems. In this regard, the institution may become dependent on financial support, both from the state and other community funds. For instance, Liberal Arts’ project (Gilbert, 1995) will not be able to compete with engineering projects, as sponsors are interested in technological breakthrough. This is the current situation at the University of Minho, as some professionals from humanities confronted their dismissal due to the lack of funds. Another constraint in this type of bureaucratic organizations is existence of collegial interaction; however, “it becomes a characteristic of subgroups rather than the total group” (Birnbaum, 1988, p.107). Reflection In an article, Lauer and Yodanis (2004), referring to the specific American context, explained the advantages of adopting a global view of the teaching and learning process. In order to achieve pre-established goals or standards, traditional and conventional institutions of higher education should enjoy some flexibility and freedom. In a globalized world, although only particular features of structures and cultural differences enjoy special attention, however, most of the educational systems should acknowledge and endorse “international perspectives” (Lauer & Yodanis, 2004, p. 304). In this regard, China, Italy, and the United States have endeavored and developed mechanisms to create communication, first, within the people in their countries and their citizens and, subsequently, within rest of the world. In order to ensure effective communication, there has been significant development of some strategic common programs to increase and improve the mobility of the students, as well as ensure the quality of the education delivered in post-secondary education. In addition, several international institutions of higher education are collaborating with each other to sign protocols and joint venture agreements under special educational projects. For instance, in China, the Confucius Institute is providing scholarships and courses, aiming to encourage foreign students to learn more about the Chinese traditions and culture in the country, as well as abroad through Erasmus and Leonardo Da Vinci’s programs involving students from all parts of Europe. In the United States, the American organizations are offering special scholarships to both national and international students. After analysis of the roots of education in China, Italy, and the United States, it is now imperative to give some attention to the effects of influence and self-contamination from the communication between different cultures, habits, and educational systems. The 20th and 21st centuries have witnessed the increment of common universal conceptualization of education; however, at the same time, it is imperative and essential to preserve some cultural particularities of each nation. In this regard, study of the scholarship, practitioner, and leader model (Ingraham & Getha-Taylor, 2004) will enable the presentation of a global picture of education in present times with special emphasis on the main obstacles that are hindering the process of education in post-secondary institutions. a) Scholarship With no doubts, designing of flexible and globally accepted programs facilitates students’ mobility in a global environment. In terms of information literacy, for instance, academic institutions should experiment “integrated, relevant, ongoing, collaborative, and applied learning strategies” (Zabel, 2004, p. 20). In distance learning programs, learners should be able to apply the acquired knowledge according to the specific contexts, such as social status, geography, political situation, etc in order to improve academic and professional quality. b) Practice The combination of theory and practice may support professionals in the effective implementation of their work. Consequently, more pragmatic and efficient ways of organizing, monitoring, and evaluating the performance of each university member is fundamental. The curricula should also be adapted to the demands of the new and contemporary contexts. c) Leadership Leaders should put efforts to identify and understand the challenges in terms of not only knowledge of a specific scientific domain, but also in terms of their moral, ethical, and communication skills. They should have the capacity of linking different organizational levels in a decentralized and horizontal perspective (Flanagan & Runde, 2009). In addition, they must have the flexibility to collaborate effectively with facilitators and mentors of innovative approaches. Mark Hyde (2008) emphasized the fact that experience is important and therefore, senior leaders should transmit their knowledge and experience to other less-experienced supervisors that will allow the whole team, from top to bottom, to acquire and benefit from a conflict-free environment (McDonald, 2005). Lastly, although we live in a globalized world, however, leaders are responsible to give some attention to particular characteristics of each nation that will ensure preservation of people’s identity, as well as ensure continuation of education that will guarantee a glorious future for humankind. References Beecher, Catharine Esther. (2009). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on December 08, 2009: http://www.search.eb.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/eb/article-9014093 Birnbaum, R. (1988) How Colleges Work. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Comunian, A. L. (2000). “Cultural values and education for the gifted and talented in Italy.” Roeper Review. Volume 22, Issue 2, pp. 117. Retrieved on January 19, 2010: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001158647 Confucius. (2009). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on December 5, 2009: http://www.search.eb.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/eb/article-9109630 Flanagan, T. & Runde, C. (2009). “How teams can capitalize on conflict.” Strategy & Leadership. Volume 37, Issue 1, pp. 20. Gilbert, J. (1995). “The liberal arts college - Is it really an endangered species?” Change. Volume 27, Issue 5, pp. 36. Hofstadter, R., & Hardy, C. D. (1952). The Development and Scope of Higher Education in the United States. New York: Columbia University Press. Hyde, Mark A. (2008). “Five keys to resolving employee conflict.” SuperVision. Volume 69, Issue 4, pp. 3-6. Ingraham, P.W., & Getha-Taylor, H. (2004). “Leadership in the public sector.” Review of Public Personnel Administration. Volume 24, Issue 2, pp. 95-112. Lauer, S. R., & Yodanis, C. L. (2004). “The international social survey programme (ISSP).” Teaching Sociology. Volume 32, Issue 3, pp. 304. Mann, Horace. (2009). Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Academic Search Database. Mann, Horace. (2009). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on December 06, 2009: http://www.search.eb.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/eb/article-9050568 McDonald, T. (2005). “Building an effective team.” Healthcare Registration. pp. 1-4. Montessori, Maria. (2009). Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Academic Search Database. Montessori, Maria. (2009). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on December 5, 2009: http://www.search.eb.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/eb/article-9053523 Murphy, M.M. (2005). The History and Philosophy of Education. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Swindall, H. (2007). “Zhou Ji. Higher Education in China.” China Review International. Volume 14, Issue 2, pp. 608. Retrieved on January 16, 2010: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5030209915 Tehie, J.B. (2007). Historical Foundations of Education. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Zabel, D. (2004). “A reaction to information literacy and higher education.” Journal of Academic Librarianship. Volume 30, Issue 1, pp. 17-21. Read More