Improving Reading Comprehension Through Story Reading - Essay Example

Improving Reading Comprehension Through Story Reading “One area in which there has been recent work towards such a form of instruction has been reading comprehension. The goal is to assist students grasping what they are in the process of understanding, not simply to have them regurgitate straightforward facts from their texts” (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988 as quoted from Clare, Gallimore, & Patthey-Chavez, 2000) A related goal is helping students to practice the complex cognitive and linguistic operations brought about by reflective student engagement in critical thinking . The activities are planned for a particular story unit are all related to the story and the process of understanding the literature better. The goal of stories is to stimulate one’s thinking and imagination. The activities were designed based on Luke and Freebody’s Four Resource Model (1992). Code-Breaker Activities: 1. Finding meanings of new and difficult words in a story. 2. Which words or phrases relate to feelings or emotions? Write them down and explain what they mean. 3. In their own words, give personal interpretation of the moral lesson in the story and give specific examples from their experiences The Code Breaker activities aim to unlock difficult words that may serve as barriers to the readers’ full comprehension of the story. It also serves to clarify certain concepts that would facilitate the understanding of the story. Meaning Maker Activities: 1. Debate: Have children research on two sides of the story. Later on, group the class into two and have them debate on which side is right or wrong. 2. Ask the children their opinions on some points of the story and if the situation was a good or a bad thing. 3. Discuss the emotions triggered by certain events in the story. The Meaning Maker activities test the readers’ pick up of concepts and how they may relate it to previous experiences or to practical situations in real life. Note that the activities do not necessarily relate to the story, but that is precisely how the text contributes to the readers’ literacy – applying concepts from the story to real life. Text User Activities: 1. Sequencing Events: Have a number of strips of paper ready. On each strip, write down a phrase or sentence depicting a specific event in the story. Present the event strip to the class in a random order. Let them reconstruct the story using the event strips. 2. Making the Setting Concrete: Each child must come up with a creative brochure about the setting of the story. Pictures and diagrams/ drawings may be used, and a creative, persuasive text must be written to tell something about the place. 3. Let the children do a mind map of the story. With the main characters in the middle of the map, create branches and sub-branches of events to complete the story. Make headings of the branches are written and represent the events with drawings. One glance at the mind map will allow the viewer to decipher what the story is about. The Text User activities provide the reader with a better appreciation of text. Being immersed in words and seeing it all around them enriches their understanding of the words, viewed from a different light, instead of constantly in print in books. The activities also empower the readers to manipulate text in ways that may serve their own purpose. It encourages their creativity in incorporating their own ideas with the text. Text Analyst Activities: 1. Outline the story well and come up with questions regarding the events. Questions may be anything related to the event. Answers to the questions may be guesses, as long as they provide good reasoning and logic. 2. Come up with a different ending to this story and share it with the class. The class votes which alternative story ending is the best. The Text Analyst activities bring the reader to a higher level of thinking as the text is thoroughly scrutinized of its limits and possibilities. It stretches the readers’ thinking beyond what is obviously provided in the story. It also allows the reader to be an author himself by manipulating the text in accordance to his creative ideas. The activities planned are not only meant to stimulate the readers’ critical and creative thinking skills but also encourage socialization with their peers. Team spirit is fostered in the games, as well as a sense of cooperation and competition. The element of fun is also incorporated in the activities, as it helps the learners retain the concepts better when associated with positive feelings. Assignment 3: Focus question 3: Metacognition 800 words Learners are meta-cognitive Linking theories together to enrich practice Describe how you would teach to enhance students’ metacognitive awareness in interaction with the steps in a general model of problem solving (such as described on pages 164-171 of Bruning et al. (2004) Honing Prediction Skills Through Stories Metacognition. It is the ability to know what we know and what we don’t know and to be spurred to action in filling in the gaps. Costa and Kallick (2007a) define metacognition as “becoming increasingly aware of one’s actions and the effect of those actions on others and on the environment; forming internal questions as one searches for information and meaning, developing mental maps or plans of action, mentally rehearsing prior to performance, monitoring those plans as they are employed – being conscious of the need for midcourse correction if the plan is not meeting expectations, reflecting on the plan upon completion of the implementation for the purpose of self-evaluation, and editing mental pictures for improved performance.” (n.p.). The general model of problem solving discussed by Bruning, Schraw, Norby & Ronning (2004) is an effective procedure to understand a concept or gain a skill while engaging in metacognitive processes. It helps the learner become fully aware of the problem and how it would affect other factors. The example to be used is learning prediction skills by drawing on one’s current knowledge and previous experiences. Identifying the problem: When some children read a story, their focus is isolated on the events of the story itself. They may be limited to the elements of the story and fail to appreciate the whole picture. It is as if they are unable to relate it to familiar events from their own lives. This thinking is what psychologists call an “episodic grasp of reality” (Feuerstein, 1980). This means to them, each event is a separate and discrete one with no connections to what may have come before or with no relation to what follows. Learning is encapsulated that they are unable to draw forth from one event and apply the learning to another (Costa & Kallick, 2007 a). This myopic view may hinder them from predicting what may happen next as they may be dependent on the current event unfolded before them. Being able to give sensible predictions require higher thinking skills that may involve culling from their knowledge and experiences. Being able to think critically and creatively is the result of engaging in predicting activities. Representing the problem It helps to solve problem if it becomes visually concrete. If it remains on the abstract sense, then, some ideas to resolve it easily fly away. Set on paper, it becomes easier to “attack”. For this particular problem of linking current knowledge and experience from a learner’s life to be able to predict what happens to a story, the following diagram may represent the problem: The knowledge and experiences a student has will greatly influence his prediction skills in comprehending what he reads. Consciously or not, the strategy of Activating the Known is used by educators most of the time. Keeping students hooked to a story by unfolding it a chapter or an event at a time engages their predicting mode (Calkins, 1997). Such a strategy has been proven effective from very young children in preschool to older ones in high school. Selecting an appropriate strategy Dr. Costa’s T.A.P.S. strategy as a promising way to promote metacognition. TAPS stands for Think Aloud Problem-Solving. The process goes this way: the teacher poses a challenging problem to the students. Then, she invites the students to describe their plans and strategies for solving the problem out loud. It is like brainstorming freely without fear of judgment. Then, students share their thinking as they are implementing their plan. Together, they reflect on the effectiveness of the strategies proposed (Costa & Kallick, 2007b). Such a process entails the choice of a relevant problem or situation to ponder on. The teacher can start with simple problems that are meaningful to them, and move on to more challenging ones as they become comfortable with the TAPS method. That way, they become more and more aware of how they think and process problems to find solutions. For my particular activity, questions will be asked of the students and what they predict will happen to the character or the story to ponder on by themselves and to be shared with the group. When students share their predictions, they may be asked to elaborate on why they think that is what will happen next. This allows students to see various viewpoints aside from their own. Implementing the strategy When asked “What do you think will happen next?” Children fall back on their available knowledge and experiences to associate events from the past chapters. For instance, in a sixth grade class of adolescent students, stories about young people’s struggles while growing up are very interesting to them. When a girl character in the story who is the same age as the reader, figures in a dilemma with her parents, the reader summon their own experiences in similar situations and activate their knowledge on what happened to them. The same thing may happen to the character in the story, and this is the next event that the readers may predict. Since the students come from various backgrounds, they may contribute different ideas as to their predictions. This becomes a highly interactive discussion involving critical and logical thinking. Active involvement in such a discussion heightens their comprehension of the reading material because they derive a more relevant and meaningful experience from it. This is the general outline of what I would do for my class: 1. Distribute a chapter of a juvenile novel to the students. 2. Let them read and understand the story. 3. Ask questions to activate the known such as: a. Have you had a similar experience as the character in the story? b. Have you met similar people as the characters? How did they take part in your lives? c. What do you think will happen in the next chapter? 4. Let each student share their own prediction and ask each to elaborate why he or she thinks so. 5. In the next session, review their predictions. 6. Let them read the next chapter. 7. Assess whose predictions were correct. Evaluating solutions After many sessions of implementing the proposed process of linking students’ knowledge and experiences to their ability to associate and predict events in a story, the teacher evaluates whether the process was effective. Were students stimulated to think deeply and associate the story events with their previous experiences? Could they relate to the characters in the story? Are the students confident enough to share their ideas with their classmates? Are they more capable of applying their knowledge in various situations presented to them? The teacher should also evaluate if the material she utilizes are appropriate in developing the necessary metacognitive skills in the students. Is the story age-appropriate? Does it present enough challenge for the students to engage in higher thinking? Are the questions posed leading or stimulating for the students? Is teacher encouraging and approachable? Does she inspire the students to use higher thinking skills? Assignment 4: Final Practical Project: Case study investigation, instructional intervention and evaluation. An authentic case study of your choice, involving background literature review, data collection, instructional design, instructional intervention, and evaluation. Helping Young Adults With Reading and Comprehension Difficulties Part A: Literature review (1500 words) Everybody is born with a capacity to learn. In the book The Adult Learner by Malcolm S. Knowles, Elwood F. Holton III and Richard A. Swanson (2007), the term learning is defined in a myriad of ways. The one by Boyd and Apps goes: “Learning is the act or process by which behavioral change, knowledge, skills and attitudes are acquired” (Boyd, Apps, et al., (1980, pp.100-101). In this definition, even animals have the capacity to learn, as acquisition of behavior has been known to be trained in animals. The book defines education as “an activity undertaken or initiated by one or more agents that is designed to effect changes in the knowledge, skill, and attitudes of individuals, groups, or communities. The term emphasizes the educator, the agent of change who presents stimuli and reinforcement for learning and designs activities to induce change.” (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2005). This definition gives a more communal flavor to the definition of learning, as it indicates that the learner adapts to the knowledge, skill and attitudes of the group he belongs to. Change is evident in learning. The agent of change is the educator or teacher, who is responsible in stimulating learning to effect that change in his learner. The more person-centered thinkers like Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow and Malcolm Knowles share a humanistic view of education, and are specifically concerned with adults who are taking their second chance at it. Malcolm Knowles, known as the Father of Andragogy or adult education has formulated his own Andragogical Theory of Adult Learning as the art and science of helping adults learn. It is organized around the notion that adults learn best in informal, comfortable, flexible and nonthreatening settings. In the humanistic view, adult learners are assumed to be motivated to learn as they are more conscious of its benefits. They experience needs and interests that learning satisfies. Their orientation to learning is practical and centered on their own lives. Adults value experience as the richest resource of learning, that is why they have no hesitations learning something while they are engaged in a new experience. “Nearly all adult education voluntary. Educational activities must meet the needs of as adult learners in order to survive”( Ellias & Merriman, 1980, p135). Adult learners have a deep need to direct their own learning, possessing a pride and learning style that suits their own personalities. As people mature, individual differences increase with age. Accepting these assumptions of how adults learn, Carl Rogers (1969), a humanistic psychologist further details the process of humanistic learning. He claims that the learner is personally involved in a holistic way. His or her feelings and cognitive aspects are deep into the learning experience. Even when the learning stimulus comes from an external source, the sense of discovery, of reaching out, of grasping and comprehending comes from within. Rogers also emphasizes that learning makes a difference in the behavior, attitudes, even the personality of the learner. This is consistent with the definition of learning presented earlier. The learner is aware whether his learning meets his personal need, whether it leads toward what he wants to know and whether “it illuminates the dark area of ignorance the individual is experiencing. The locus of evaluation resides definitely in the learner.” The essence of learning for the adult learner is meaning. When learning takes place, the element of meaning is built into the whole experience. Ellias and Merriman (1980) concur, “the truly humanistic teacher respects and utilizes the experiences and potentialities of students”(125). He gets his cues from his students in order for his class to be more productive. Abraham Maslow, influential in his theory of man’s Hierarchy of needs illustrates that a person goes through a ladder of needs for survival. His needs for safety is basic, as it encompasses biological and psychological needs of security –his hunger is satiated, he is clothed and sheltered and he does not feel threats to harm his cocoon of security. When these basic needs are met, then he goes up to the need for affection as he seeks warm and satisfying personal relationships to make him feel loved and to love others in return. Upon satisfying that need, he feels a need to build up his esteem, as how he feels about himself and how others think of him becomes essential to his survival. Finally, he reaches self-actualization which is the “full use of talents, capacities, potentialities, etc.” At this point, ambivalence is felt by the individual as two opposing sets of forces within him determine his growth toward his goal: one set clings to safety and defensiveness out of fear, tending to regress backward, hanging on to the past in his comfort zone. The other set of forces “impels him forward toward wholeness to Self and uniqueness of self toward full functioning of all his capacities. We grow forward when the delights of growth and anxieties of safety are greater than the anxieties of growth and the delights of safety” (Maslow, 1970, pp.44-45). Focusing on the person and how he perceives the learning experience is the heart of the humanistic view of adult education. More than the concepts or skills he acquires through the activities designed around how he learns, “the emphasis of the humanistic educator, however, is not upon the works of the past and the values these possess, but on the freedom and dignity of the individual person that is highlighted in this tradition” (Ellias & Merriman, 1980, p109). An adult learner with a learning disability may suffer from low self-esteem, as he may not keep up with his peers. . A learning disability (LD) is an invisible handicap. According to the Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (2000), the definition for LD is “A specific developmental disorder that inhibits or interferes with the skills of learning, including speaking, listening, reading, writing, or mathematical ability”. Being psychologically healthy is a prerequisite for it. Carl Rogers states, the learners’ most important work focuses on demonstrating the optimum psychological conditions which allows for open communication and the empowerment of individuals to achieve their fullest potential (Rogers, 1969). This implies that adults who are on their way to self-actualization are the best candidates for optimum adult learning. Adults with certain types of learning difficulties may learn with some special educational strategies that engage their other skills. As long as the person has the drive to learn, it is very possible for him to do so. This practical project will be dealing with adults with difficulties in reading and comprehension. Educators use different approaches to help students become literate. There are divergent approaches that offer sensible principles that have worked on their students. One approach is the whole language approach, which emphasize a holistic, meaning-based and context-based approach in linking printed text with spoken language. Little attention is paid to specific or isolated skills and limited emphasis is placed on the role of focused practice. Language and literacy are viewed as integrated systems, and specific components of language such as sounds of each letter are not learned in isolation (Norris & Hoffman, 1993). In contrast, proponents of the Phonetic approach, which emphasizes phonological awareness training, value the provision of specific and focused opportunities to practice segmenting words into phonemes, blending phonemes into words and learning to rhyme. Although the whole language approach and the phonetic approach seem to be opposing camps, there is good reason to suggest an integration of both for more effective literacy development. Watkins & Bunce (1996) gives the rationale: “On the one hand, because the process of literacy acquisition occurs through natural, meaningful experiences with print and reading, these experiences should play a role in efforts to facilitate such skills. On the other hand, because phonological awareness contributes to early reading achievement, some focus on particular phonological awareness abilities appears warranted. Thus, a rationale exists for integrating whole language and phonological awareness perspectives in attempts to promote literacy proficiency in young children.” (n.p.) Current trends in education support the literacy theories described above. Constructivist theory is gaining more attention, recognition and acceptance in many educational institutions. It premises on the belief that learners “construct” their own learning, and in effect, have better retention of it. “In the Constructivist theory the emphasis is placed on the learner or the student rather than the teacher or the instructor.  It is the learner who interacts with objects and events and thereby gains an understanding of the features held by such objects or events.  The learner, therefore, constructs his/her own conceptualizations and solutions to problems.  Learner autonomy and initiative is accepted and encouraged.” (Van Ryneveld, n.d., n.p.). This approach seem best for adult learners. Constructivist approaches advocate learners to derive learning from their own experiences, as experience is still the best teacher. A wise educator understands this and designs a curriculum around these principles to acknowledge utmost respect for the learner. She knows that she is merely instrumental in introducing tools such as stories and learning activities in igniting the flame of passion for learning in her students. Justification/ Significance of Selected Focus Area: Adult Learners with Reading and Comprehension Difficulties Nowadays, a person is judged by the skills he possesses in order to survive. Many people go through life using their innate competencies to deal with life’s challenges. Being educated and literate has become a necessity in surviving in a very competitive world. Many people also live with a lot of challenges to their skills. They grow up without the opportunities to be diagnosed of their disabilities, if any, and be provided with the necessary interventions to help them cope with such difficulties. These people grow up to be adults who could have optimized their potentials if only they were given such opportunities in their childhood. However, it is never too late for those who are committed to overcome such disabilities. Teaching adults with learning disabilities require a teacher’s sensitivity to the students’ issues. Most of them look at their disabilities with shame and it is pride that keeps them from seeking help. Breaking through that tough exterior is a challenge for educators who have sincere intentions of helping them. Of course it also takes effective methodologies to help them learn the necessary skills they need. This focus area on adult learners with reading and comprehension difficulties aims to reach out to people who believe they can do more with their lives if they know how to manage their disabilities. Concept Map: Part B: Practical project report (1500 words) A. Data collection 1 The participants selected for this project are two young adults who did not finish their schooling. Based on my initial observations they have exhibited difficulties in reading specifically: having a difficult time in comprehension, difficulty in remembering details, comprehends at only a very literal level, difficulty in inferential comprehension, sequencing of events and vocabulary. Such learning disabilities have caused both of them to have poor self-esteem and inadequate social skills. However, these adults are high functioning in their daily lives. One of them has her own family, and both of them hold jobs. Both participants have no difficulty in verbal communication. B. Step-by-step details of the design of Instructional Intervention I have designed a curriculum that aims to meet my two participants’ needs and help them achieve their goals at least in the duration of the project. It is a literacy program that is based on the Whole-Language Approach method. I believe the strategies I have chosen were effective in drawing out the strengths of my participants and improve on their weaknesses. My module is literature based, and I used the story “Stone Soup”. This children’s story is not to be underestimated as a lot of rich concepts and activities may be harvested from it. Such activities are bound to develop the necessary skills my participants need to achieve their goals. I met with the two participants for an hour or two everyday for a week. Although my instructional intervention is ideally designed for a small class, I had to adjust it to an exclusive class of two. The learning strategies I have come up with are interesting enough to keep the attention of my participants. My intended outcomes for these are the following: Discussions on different questions about the story – encourages recall of the main point and the noting of details in the story. It also encourages making inferences and conclusions and enhances comprehension of the story. Sequencing picture/ event cards – helps the participants focus on the logical flow of the story. It encourages focus and order in thinking. Recall of ingredients and coming up with a recipe – develops recall skills and creative thinking in coming up with an original recipe Filling out blanks with word cards: - practices visual discrimination and logical skills. Essays on differentiating facts from opinions: helps participants think deeper than the literal level of the story and apply some concepts to real-life situations. It also encourages expression of ideas in print. Thinking of how the story might be affected by changing just one detail – encourages students to think of causes and effects and promotes logical and critical thinking. Shopping and Cooking Soup- Shopping for ingredients necessary for a particular recipe requires skills in estimation (quantity needed for recipe), budgeting, choosing the best brands for the best price and even thinking of alternative materials in the event that an ingredient is not available or is priced too high for the budget prescribed. Following a recipe while cooking enhances order in following the correct sequence of the procedure. This project likewise promotes cooperation and working as a team. C. Data Collection 2 The session began with reading of the story “Stone Soup” We unlock some vocabulary words to make sure the participants understand the story. Then a more thorough discussion of a particular theme within the story is done. As an example, they may be asked to discuss “Why does the soldier keep a special stone?” On another day, they discuss “How come everybody readily contributed what they have to the soup?” Still another discussion theme is “How else do you think the story might have ended?” These questions aimed to engage the participants in metacognitive and collaborative thinking as they get deep into the discussions. It also practiced the participants’ communication skills Next, I integrate all the concepts we have taken up and write them on the blackboard. This is the time when I remind them to take down notes so they will remember the concepts taken up. Then they do an activity related to the story. These activities are designed to tap their weaknesses and improve on it. In effect, I create a buddy system with one buddy complementing the strengths and weaknesses of the other buddy. For example, activity will sequence the events of the story using picture cards or printed event cards from the story and arranging these in the proper sequence of events. This activity is to address difficulties in sequencing events. Another activity is to remember the list of ingredients in the stone soup and draw and label each. This addresses difficulties in remembering details in the story. They will come up with a recipe. This reflects application to real life circumstances as they have to think of a process that indeed uses such ingredients to come up with a tasty and nutritious soup. Another activity is to fill out the blanks of an excerpt from the story using pre-written words on a card. This activity addresses difficulties in visual discrimination. Figuring out which word goes where is one challenge that also involves logical and comprehensive thinking. Aside from the session activities, I have also included some dynamic strategies, some done in class and some as homework - writing essays on differentiating facts from opinions; how the whole story may be affected by changing just one detail; and having simple projects such as shopping within a prescribed budget for ingredients to use for the soup and following a recipe to cook the soup. D. Data Collection 3 At first, the participants thought the project would be a breeze, as the material was juvenile and the activities planned out seemed fun. However, as they tried out the activities and realized that their skills were being challenged, they took the project more seriously. In assessing the skills of my participants, I would give accommodations according to their specific disabilities. In the beginning, they used very simple words, but towards the end of the sessions, I noticed they used some words from the vocabulary list from the story. I try to keenly observe their communication skills specifically their auditory or receptive abilities and oral expressive language abilities. Non-verbal gestures speak volumes. From a point where there was difficulty in understanding the events in the story, the activities helped in understanding it at length and depth. Accuracy in visually processing information as in the sequencing of pictures of events began very poorly. At the end of the sessions, the sequence was perfected due to their complete comprehension of the story. Following directions in proper sequence likewise improved as they learned to be more organized and coherent in their thinking. Remembering details and retaining information improved as observed in the game-like activities. As I listened to their discussions, I also observed deeper insights over time and more associations to their daily experiences. It helped that there were only two participants who were tightly supervised. Also the rapport established among the three of us was very good. I believe my participants have made a lot of progress in their reading and comprehension skills through the various activities I introduced. More than that, I believe I was instrumental in their emerging positive self-esteem. If only for that, I know I have done my duty as an educator well. E. Feedback From Collaborative Partner References Boyd, R., & Apps, J. (1980). Redefining the disciplining of adult education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., Norby, M.N. & Ronning, R.R. (2004) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 4th ed. Calkins, L. (1997) Raising Lifelong Learners, A Parents’ Guide. MA: Perseus Books. Clare, L. Gallimore, R. & Patthey-Chavez, G.G., (1996) “Using Moral Dilemmas in Children's Literature as a Vehicle for Moral Education and Teaching Reading Comprehension, Journal of Moral Education, 25(3), 325-341. Costa, A.L. & Kallick, B. (2007a) “Describing 16 Habits of Mind”, Retrieved on March 20, 2009 from http://www.habits-of-mind.net/ Costa, A.L. and Kallick, B (2007b) "Building a More Thought-full Learning Community with Habits of Mind," a PowerPoint presentation retrieved on March 20, 2009 from http://www.habits-of-mind.net/ Ellias, J.L. & Merriam, S.B. (1980) Philosophical Foundations of Adult Education. Krieger Pub Co Feuerstein, R. Rand, Y.m, Hoffman, M. B., & Miller, R. (1980). Instrumental Enrichment: An Intervention Program For Cognitive Modifiability. Baltimore: University Park Press. Freebody, P. (1992). A socio-cultural approach: Resourcing four roles as a literacy learner. In A. Watson & A. Badenhop (Eds.), Prevention of reading failure (pp. 48-60). Sydney: Ashton-Scholastic. Knowles, M., Holton, E., & Swanson, R. A. (2007). The Adult Learner, Sixth Edition. New York: Butterworth-Heinemann Learning disability. Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology. (2000) .[On-line].Available: http://www.findarticles.com Maslow, A.H. (1970) Motivation & Personality. Harper & Row Publishers. Norris, J., & Hoffman, P. (1993). Whole Language Intervention for School-age Children. San Diego: Singular Press. Rogers, C.R.. 1969. Freedom to learn: a view of what education might become. Columbus, OH, Charles E. Merrill. Van Ryneveld, L., (n.d.) “What is constructivism?”, Retrieved on March 25, 2009 from http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/lindavr/lindapg1.htm Watkins, R. V., Bunce, B. H. (1996), “Natural literacy: Theory and practice for preschool intervention programs”, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, Summer96, Vol. 16, Issue 2 Read More