Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement - Assignment Example

Review of Literature Introduction Everybody is familiar with homework. Children, as early as in preschool, experience having homework as part of their academic life. It seems that everyone grew up doing homework. Several versions were given to define homework. According to American Heritage (2000), homework is work, such as schoolwork or piecework, that is done at home. Cooper (1989) defined homework as "tasks assigned to students by school teachers that are meant to be carried out during non-school hours." And Butler, 1987, defined homework as “the time students spend outside the classroom in assigned activities to practice, reinforce or apply newly-acquired skills and knowledge and to learn necessary skills of independent study”. For the purpose of this paper, let us define homework as any school work given by teachers that should be done after class hours. It does not necessary require to do it at home so that school works like research in the school library may still be considered as homework. It may also include group work with classmates. Nature and Purpose of Homework According to La Conte (1981), there are three types are commonly assigned in the United States: practice, preparation, and extension. “Practice assignments reinforce newly acquired skills or knowledge.” (Eddy, 1984) These include finding more examples in their own environment. “Preparation Assignments are intended to provide background information, these assignments can include readings in the class text, library research, collecting materials for a class demonstration, and other activities requiring the gathering or organizing of information before a class discussion or demonstration.” (Eddy, 1984) And lastly, “Extension Assignments are assignments encourage individualized and creative learning by emphasizing student initiative and research.” (Eddy, 1984) These include long-term, continuing projects that parallel classwork, extension assignments that require students to apply previous knowledge. Butler (1987) provides the purpose of homework. These are the “purpose of homework: Provide additional practice, increasing the amount of time students are actively engaged in learning and extending time on task. Be useful to teachers for monitoring student progress and diagnosing student learning problems. Be an effective way to increase student personal responsibility and individual accountability. Facilitate more rapid movement through the curriculum: students augment class time with outside study, freeing teachers to introduce new material more quickly. Lead to increased communications between parents and the schools and encourage parent awareness of student learning. Contribute to students and parents understanding that the school holds high expectations of students. At a first glance at the definitions and purposes of homework as stated above, it seems that homework does not present any problem on conflict with the role of homework with the achievement of children in school. But reality seems to offer a different experience. Several questions are asked like what type of homework is beneficial, the quantity of homework a child should have, and the most important question raised – does homework really improve academic achievement? History on the Debate on Homework The debate on homework has become a perennial topic in education. From the 1900’s to the 1940’s most educators agreed on the importance of homework, which are usually memorization or drills. By 1940, a growing concern that homework interfered with other home activities sparked a reaction against it. Educators began to question the positive effects of homework. By 1950’s, together with the Cold War, a nationwide movement also emerged to improve education and student performance. The concern at that time was that education lacked rigor and rigorous homework was a partial solution to the problem. It became a tool to cultivate a pupil’s achievement (Roget’s 2004). By 1960 opponents of homework emerged and condemned homework saying it was deterring the psychological development of students (Cooper, 2001). Since then the importance and effects of homework have been under scrutiny. Researches abound on homework as an effective method for improving student achievement. But by 1980, the trend had reversed again, and arguments for and against homework have continued to proliferate. (Manzano & Pickering, 2007) Several researches had been conducted to find out the effects of homework. We are now at a time when we can evaluate all these researches and hopefully end the debate on homework. The following pages will try to summarize researches conducted in favor and against homework. Researches on Advantages of Homework Butler (1987) concluded that schools in which homework is routinely assigned and graded tend to have higher achieving student and giving homework on a regular basis may increase achievement and improve attitudes toward learning. Lacina-Gifford, and Gifford (2004) answered the argument that it takes away valuable time from family bonding. They recommended that what is needed is a different approach to homework which provides social interaction for family and peers while providing meaningful learning beyond the classroom. Walker, Hoover-Dempsey, Whetsel, and Green (2004) reviewed research on parental involvement in childrens homework (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). They stated that “Whether children do homework at home, complete it in after school programs or work on it during the school day, homework can be a powerful tool for (a) letting parents and other adults know what the child is learning, (b) giving children and parents a reason to talk about whats going on at school, and (c) giving teachers an opportunity to hear from parents about childrens learning.” Marzano and Pickering (2007) argued that teachers should not abandon homework. Instead, they should improve its instructional quality. Huntsinger (1999) concluded that homework for K-5 children can build skills, without undue stress. The four-year longitudinal study focused of Chinese-America and European-American indicates clearly that homework given in the preschool and primary grades reaps long-term benefits. One of the benefits of homework is in the early years performed significantly better in mathematics and English vocabulary in third and fourth grades than those children who were not given homework and whose parents relied on informal methods to teach them. It also showed that children who did considerable homework were more academically competent than, and as psychologically well adjusted as, children who did little or no homework in the early grades. It appears that children benefit from more practice on basic skills outside school. Sausa (2003) again reiterated that the purpose of homework is to develop intellectual discipline, establish good study habits, balance classroom workload, supplement and reinforce material covered in class, and serve as a link between home and school. Homework may also be used to close achievement gaps between students. Studies on certain groups of students were also made. Studies done by McDermott, Goldmen and Varenne (1984) and Scott-Jones (1984) concluded that students from low-income homes may not benefit as much from homework as those from higher-income homes. The study conducted by Rosenberg in 1989 and Cooper and Nye in 1994, both concluded that students with learning disabilities benefit from homework under certain conditions. Students with learning disabilities can benefit from homework if appropriate supervision and monitoring are provided. Keith and Benson (1992) studied Asian American students and found out that they may benefit more from homework than do students from other ethnic groups. The Disadvantages of Homework Several studies had also been done on the disadvantages of homework. The major proponent against homework is Kohn, who concluded that research fails to demonstrate homeworks effectiveness as an instructional tool and recommended changing the “default state” from an expectation that homework will be assigned to an expectation that homework will not be assigned. In an interview on his book, The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing (2006), Kohn questioned the accepted state that homework is necessary. He stated that there is no study or research that could support this claim. Hence, unless there is proof and is justified, teachers should not give students homeworks. According to Kohn, teachers should only assign homework when they can justify that the assignments are “beneficial”. However, Kohn seems to limit his view on homework as just worksheets to be done by students at home. Others have also expressed disagreement with homework. In the book The End of Homework: How Homework Disrupts Families, Overburdens Children, and Limits Learning by Kralovec and Buell (2000), the authors pointed out that homework does harm to the economically disadvantaged students, who are unintentionally penalized because their environments often make it almost impossible to complete assignments at home. (Manzano & Pickering, 2007). Bennett and Kalish (2006) in The Case Against Homework: How Homework Is Hurting Our Children and What We Can Do About It. , stated that too much homework harms students health and family time, and they asserted that teachers are not well trained in how to assign homework.. Cooper, Robinson, and Patall (2006) also acknowledge that when students spend more time than this on homework, the positive relationship with student achievement diminishes Research also shows that too much homework may diminish its effectiveness. Some research has shown that students who spend more time on homework score higher on measures of achievement and attitude. (Cooper 2001; Cooper, Lindsay, Nye, and Greathouse 1998). Much has been said on the effects of homework to students’ achievement test. However, the link between homework and student achievement is far from clear. There is no conclusive evidence that homework increases student achievement across the board. Some studies show positive effects of homework under certain conditions and for certain students, some show no effects, and some suggest negative effects (Kohn 2006; Trautwein and Koller 2003) Even after-school programs that provide homework assistance may improve student behavior, motivation, and work habits. But this is not necessarily true for academic achievement. Several studies, however, noted improvements in student motivation and work habits, which may indirectly affect achievement (Cosden, Morrison, Albanese, and Macias 2001; James-Burdumy et al. 2005). There is also little research on connections between specific kinds of homework and student achievement. Researches were not focused on the effect of homework on a specific subject. Little research exists on the effects of these different kinds of homework on student achievement, leaving policymakers with little evidence on which to base decisions (Cooper 1989; Foyle 1985; Murphy and Decker 1989). In addition to grade level differences, another obvious question is whether homework is more effective for some subject areas than for others. Weaknesses in Previous Research Correlational studies have the advantage of allowing large samples of data to be collected across populations of students that vary in individual characteristics, social circumstances, and educational treatment. One weakness specific to correlational research relating homework to achievement is that no distinction has been made between how achievement relates to (a) amount of homework teachers assign and (b) proportion of assigned homework completed by students. Instead, previous large-scale correlational research almost uniformly related a measure of achievement to students self-reports of the amount of time they spend doing homework. Another weakness of many studies is that they typically measure achievement using either a standardized achievement test or teacher-assigned grades. If both measures are taken, it is possible to investigate not only the simple correlations between each achievement measure and homework (and how they might differ) but also the relation between grades and homework while controlling for standardized achievement test scores. Conclusion Certainly, inappropriate homework may produce little or no benefit and it may even decrease student achievement. It has been agreed upon that the quality of homework makes the difference. But attention was mostly given to the amount of homework but not much on teaching the teachers what homework to give. Schools should strengthen their policies to ensure that teachers use homework properly. It can not be denied that proper homework can enhance achievement by extending learning beyond the school day. This is beneficial to acknowledge since National Education Commission on Time and Learning in 1994 found that “students abroad are required to work on demanding subject matter at least twice as long” as are U.S. students (National Education Commission on Time and Learning, 1994, p. 25). Researches must be fully understood. The results must be fully interpreted to answer the original problem on the effects of homework to academic achievement. It is time for educators to pull all researches made on this topic. It is about time to scrutinize the methods use in the researches to weed out invalid claims about homework. Research has established the overall viability of homework as a tool to enhance student achievement but it does do much on the practical and specific recommendation for teachers. If homework is to be dropped from school polices, a school or district would be obliged to identify a practice that produces a similar effect within the confines of the school day without taking away or diminishing the benefits of other academic activities. The research community takes a long time to formulate firm conclusions on the basis of research. But with all the researches mentioned above, all the benefits of homework and the researches against it also, it is about time to end this debate. Decades have passed and a lot researches have been made. Considering these researches, a conclusion must be reached to find out what really could help the children, while keeping in mind the changes that took place in the society and culture. The questions like “Should children have daily homework?”; “What role should parents play in helping their children with homework?”; “Why do teachers assign homework and does it improve academic achievement?”; “What policies do school districts have on homework?”; “What kind of homework is most effective?”; How much homework is appropriate?”; “At what age level is homework a useful learning tool?”; “Who is responsible for deciding how much homework to assign?” ; and “Who is responsible for monitoring homework?”, must be answered. References Bennet, S. & Kalish, N. (2006) The Case Against Homework: How Homework Is Hurting Our Children and What We Can Do About It. Crown Butler, J. A. (1987) Homework. School Improvement Research Series, November 1987. Retrieved April 25, 2007 from http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/1/cu1.html Cooper, H. (1989). Homework. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman. Cooper, H. (2001). Homework for all—in moderation. Educational Leadership, 58, 34-38Cooper, H., Lindsay, J. J., Nye, B., and Greathouse, S. (1998) Relationships among attitudes about homework, amount of homework assigned and completed, and student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 90(1), Mar 1998. pp. 70-83. Cooper, H., Robinson, J.C., Petall, E.A., (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76 (1), 1-42. Eddy, Y. (1984). Developing Homework Policies. ERIC Journal. Retrieved April 28, 2007 Foyle, H. C. (1985). The effects of preparation and practice homework on student achievement in tenth-grade American history (Doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University, 1985). Dissertation Abstracts International, 45, 8A. as cited in Edvantia (2007) What research says about the value of homework. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/site/c.kjJXJ5MPIwE/b.2466963/k.D3DF/Key_l essons_What_research_says_about_the_value_of_homework.htm Gill, B.P., & Schlossman, S.L. (2000). The lost cause of homework reform. American Journal of Education, 109, 27-62. Gill, B.P., Schlossman, S.L., (2004) Villain or Savior? The American Discourse on Homework Theory Into Practice, v43 n3 p174-181 Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Battiato, A. C., Walker, J. M. T., Reed, R. P., DeJong, J. M. & Jones, K. P. (2001). Parental involvement in homework. Educational Psychologist, 36, 195- 209.as cited in Edvantia (2007) What research says about the value of homework. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/site/c.kjJXJ5MPIwE/b.2466963/k.D3DF/Key_l essons_What_research_says_about_the_value_of_homework.htm Huntisinger, C., 1999. Does K-5 homework mean higher test scores? American Teacher, April 1999. Retrieved May 1, 2007 from http://www.aft.org/parents/k5homework.htm Keith, T. Z., & Benson, M. J. (1992). Effects of manipulable influences on high school grades across five ethnic groups. Journal of Educational Research, 86, 85-93. as cited in Edvantia (2007) What research says about the value of homework. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/site/c.kjJXJ5MPIwE/b.2466963/k.D3DF/Key_l essons_What_research_says_about_the_value_of_homework.htm Kohn, A. (2006) The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing. Da Capo Lifelong Books as cited in Stager, G. S. (2006). The homework myth. District Administration, 42 (12), 63-65. Kralovec, E, & Buell, J. (2000). The end of homework: How homework disrupts families, overburdens children, and limits learning. Boston: Beacon Press Lacina-Gifford, Lorna J.; Gifford, Russell B., (2004) Putting an End to the Battle over Homework. Education, v125 (2) p279 LaConte, R. T., (1981) Homework as a Learning Experience. National Education Association, 1981. Manzano, R. J. & Pickering, D. J. (2007). The Case For and Against Homework. Educational Leadership 64(6), 74-79. McDermott, R. P., Goldman, S. V., & Varenne, H. (1984). When school goes home: Some problems in the organization of homework [Abstract]. Teachers College Record, 85, 391- 409. as cited in Edvantia (2007) What research says about the value of homework. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/site/c.kjJXJ5MPIwE/b.2466963/k.D3DF/Key_l essons_What_research_says_about_the_value_of_homework.htm Murphy, J. & Decker, K. (1989). Teachers’ use of homework in high schools. Journal of Educational Research, 82(5), 261-269 as cited in Edvantia (2007) What research says about the value of homework. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/site/c.kjJXJ5MPIwE/b.2466963/k.D3DF/Key_l essons_What_research_says_about_the_value_of_homework.htmRosenberg, M. S. (1989). The effects of daily homework assignments on the acquisition of basic skills by students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 314-323. as cited in Edvantia (2007) What research says about the value of homework. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/site/c.kjJXJ5MPIwE/b.2466963/k.D3DF/Key_l essons_What_research_says_about_the_value_of_homework.htm Scott-Jones, D. (1984). Family influences on cognitive development and school achievement. Review of Research in Education, 11, 259-304 as cited in Edvantia (2007) What research says about the value of homework. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/site/c.kjJXJ5MPIwE/b.2466963/k.D3DF/Key_l essons_What_research_says_about_the_value_of_homework.htmSheperd, J. (2006). I felt very isolated. Times Higher Education Supplement, 1771, 6-7. Sousa, R. (2003). Homework Pays Off. Hoover Digest, 2003 (4) Stager, G. S. (2006). The homework myth. District Administration, 42 (12), 63-65. Walker, J.M., Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., Whetsel, D.R., Green, C.L., (2004) Parental Involvement in Homework: A Review of Current Research and Its Implications for Teachers, After School Program Staff, and Parent Leaders.: Harvard Family Research Project, Harvard Graduate School of Education Read More