Ways that Higher Education Structures Help to Develop Innovative Teaching and Learning Approaches - Term Paper Example

 Explore the ways that Contemporary higher education structures constrain or help to develop innovative teaching and learning approaches. Content 1. INTRODUCTION 3 Background Higher Education Contemporary Higher Education Structures Innovative teaching and learning 2. Context of contemporary UK higher education 8 3. Impact of structures on forms of teaching and learning Innovation 13 Independent learning and self-assessment skills Distance learning Action learning Use of ICT Industry participation in learning Teaching and learning with images Study Guides 4. Conclusion 23 5. References 26 Explore the ways that Contemporary higher education structures constrain or help to develop innovative teaching and learning approaches. INTRODUCTION Background British higher education has witnessed several important shifts in education especially the shift from the elite system to that of `massification` within higher education and the modification from a constricted range of taught subjects and teaching methods to a much broader curricula and pedagogies. It was not just an educational change in the1960. The shift was to affect society bringing about a change in an expanding culturally diverse population, which would alter the trend of education. Various factors including advanced information and communications technology (ICT) has brought about a revolution in the system of higher education. Today higher education is viewed more as an economic market. The works of economist like Solow and Schultz (1961: 1-7) signify the importance of education towards the economic growth of any nation which buffers as an important investment essential to development. Economic theory suggest that increasing the skills and educational levels of a given population not only increases individual productivity, but also is one of the few strategies open to government for promoting growth in a global market. In a constantly changing environment this would increase the adaptability and flexibility of the work force (Schultz, 1961; McCarthy, 1992). To explore the ways that contemporary higher education (HE) structures constrain or help to develop innovative teaching or learning approaches, it is imperative to define higher education, understand what is meant by ‘contemporary higher education structures’ and ‘innovative teaching and learning’. Higher Education Higher education embraces teaching, learning, scholarship and research. It is the education above the level normally achieved at the end of upper secondary schooling which in the UK includes all education above level 3 or A level and its equivalents. The main providers of higher education are the universities and higher colleges. Higher education has created a more widening access for `alternative` students (Davis et al., 1994). Educational access within higher education has developed considerably. The trends have changed and there is a renewed focus on the teaching and learning approaches within the educational structures. Higher education since the Robbins report has been significantly empowering for individuals creating greater access and in sync contributing to the socio-economic growth of society. The four aims and objectives identified by The Robbins Committee (1963) include: Instructions in skills for employment; Promoting the general powers of the mind; Advancing learning; Transmitting a common culture and common standards of citizenship. These areas were prerequisite for the functioning of higher educational institutions and the participation of individuals. Over time due to economic growth and cultural change within society coupled with the advancement of rapid technological expansion the above areas were re-addressed by the DfEE in 1994, implementing changes to fit in with current trends and demands. As a result, higher education was redefined and amendments were then made as follows: Imparting employment skills; Providing opportunities for adult lifetime learning to enable individuals, employers and the nation as a whole to adapt to changing circumstances; Promoting the general powers of the mind; Advancing learning and research; Promoting culture and high standards in all aspects of society; Contemporary higher education structures Higher education in the UK before the 1960`s had only four main universities with a low intake clientele and only those who had the opportunity of being financially buoyant and academically competent could gain access. Since the 1960`s Robbins Report which witnessed a radical change, higher educational structures have emerged taking on a different stance. Progress since then has been phenomenal and not only do institutions have a more diverse participation of ethnic minorities learners but a larger number of higher educational institutions and universities are centrally positioned in various local government authorities. Education in society has not only developed, but culturally changed and as a result educational structures have changed too. If we do not create a learning society, if we do not find the means of generating the appropriate skills and craft and expertise, then we will fail to develop our most important resource-our people-and we will fail as an economy in this increasingly globalised market (Howells, 1997, original emphasis). The structures within higher education endeavour to cultivate a learning society, motivate individuals in creating personal pathways and it effectively prepares them with the skills, knowledge and a sense of fulfilment. The educational structures evidently provide a resource for research that helps to cultivate innovative approaches to foster and enhance learning within higher education. If society is to advance and become competitive in the global market of the 21st century, higher education is fundamental in the promotion of widening participation. Access to higher education has been made possible with institutions dotted in prime localised areas where every opportunity is afforded to educate improve and develop individuals. Innovative teaching and learning The Dearing Report of 1997 gave a signal of “a radical change in attitudes to teaching” and called for “a change in the values of higher education” (Badley, 1999). This woke up the authorities to enhance the teaching and learning at the higher education level. The Dearing Report recommended that the teachers should be trained to teach and that they should demonstrate continuing professional development as educator-teachers. The teachers should also be able to effectively assess the student learning and give an appropriate feedback. The teachers should have a democratic, collaborative, and a participative view of the educational process. These suggested innovative teaching and learning styles in higher education. Commitment to the improvement in teaching and learning led to innovative methods and different institutions started having an overt organizational framework concerned with sustaining and enhancing the quality of learning and teaching within the institution. This essay will thus determine whether the contemporary higher education structures constrain or help to develop innovative teaching and learning methods. It will also discuss to what extent the higher educational institutions have been able to contend with the various factors relating to government policies and how they play out or have affected teaching and learning as well as student population within the higher educational system. The role of ICT in the changing educational patterns will also be thrown light upon. CONTEXT OF CONTEMPORARY UK HIGHER EDUCATION Despite the recommendations of the Dearing Report, higher educational institutions had to contend with the impact of being dictated to follow instructions relating to institutional change. The government too insisted on having a say in the delivery of teaching and learning. The government had a different agenda as the stakeholders wanted more control over upcoming universities and higher educational institutions which appeared trapped under the pressures of policy and being pulled in different complex directions. These areas obviously caused conflict in that higher educational institutions still wanted to maintain some control and choice over certain areas of management. These pressures by government added to internal resistance coupled with the forces already affecting higher education identified by a university vice chancellor. Bradley (1997b: 1) clarifies the areas of difficulty affecting higher educational institutions and presented them as: Globalisation of economic systems; Rapid development of communications technologies, which are revolutionising both the way we do things and our contact with people across the globe; Changing patterns of work and employment; and Growing economic and social inequalities within and between nations. In agreement Reid (1997: 1) concurs with issues raised by Bradley and further adds to the list clearly showing the hazards facing the educational institutions over areas they have little or no control of: The political economy of higher education; The reconfiguration of knowledge within and between traditional fields of scholarship; The increasingly interventionist tendencies of government, the professions and employers; The funding and deregulation of higher education; Competition for the potential client base for universities. Both issues show very similar concerns shared around higher education each identifying and highlighting the effect economic and socio factors play on the stability of higher educational institutions and how these areas can limit innovative teaching and learning approaches over which institutions had little or no control. Faced with such pressures some institutions had to abandon courses due to issues around funding which resulted in maintaining usual patterns of working with little or no incentive to modern structures. Even three decades after with the provision of student loans, such incentives are not available to students. Institutions were encouraged to take on user-pays approaches which meant pressures not only on students but also the need of accountability for services. In 1996 higher education showed 30% of 18 year olds in Britain were participating in higher education with the projected increase of 40% by the end of the century (Ford et al., 1996:9). This meant that institutions had to justify quality with very little support. Ford went on to add the consequence would mean institutions would have to implement a marketing approach. Drawing on some of the sensitive questions raised by Ford and in deliberation it is without doubt that teaching and learning within institutions would be constrained if such questions had to be justified in higher education. How important is teaching to a learning environment? How important is research? Are some students more financially attractive than others? What are the investment factors that will determine how likely the institution is to acquire its funding? Can we define and afford a learning infrastructure that will attract our target students? In higher education these are clearly the corner stones of education that need not be questioned. If access and participation were determined only by financial status certainly this would mean limited provision for learners and economic progress. Robbins in his report stated in (1963) “Higher education should be available for all those qualified by ability and attainment to pursue it”. Clauses cannot be put down randomly that would erect barriers around access this would go against the very core of the New Labour government which foremost is education for all. Learning is essential to a strong economy and an inclusive society. In offering a way out of dependency and low expectation, it lies in the heart of the Government’s welfare reform programme claims DfEE (1998, p11) but there remains a gap between policies and practice. Universities and higher education since 1996 have increased not only in numbers but structure and resources. The very few universities that existed in the early 1900`s were Oxford, Cambridge, Durham and London which had limited numbers of intakes with admission only of a certain age group undertaking tapered structured courses. With the explosion and expansion of large universities which would invariably affect government revenue institutions would have to be responsible to a large extent for provision of their own funding in certain areas and learners would have to pay fees to support their studies even though this did not directly restrict it would indirectly hold back or make individual cautious especially those who felt threatened to take on loans. If individuals find it arduous to afford fees invariably access is hampered, teaching and learning within education then become a strain. With the rise in higher educational institutions and the increase in 17-19 year olds a wider diversity range meant increased support to address learning needs with a wider range of courses offered to cater for diversification. Dopson and McNay (1996:18). It had become crucial that higher education was to have a system of accountability since government wanted a firmer grip on higher institutions to monitor and audit performance .A desirability of `openness` was expected to act as an indicator for institutional quality. Higher education with teaching and learning approaches was now a means to unlock career opportunities for individuals. Higher educational institutions are likely to move away from a pattern based to conventional teaching methods delivered in a fixed place at a fixed time, to a much more flexible system in which people learn how they want, when they want and where they want. Students will be independent, active learners, not passive recipients of teaching. They will make extensive use of technology and exhibit a much more diverse, richer information environment. (Ford et al., 1996: 15). The predominant pattern of study within Higher education is not seen as a continuous programme but more that of individuals been accountable for their own learning. Contemporary structures within higher education provide the opportunity for a larger diversity of society to access higher education. The explosion of information and communication technology has eradicated distance and space compressed at the click of a button. The long-standing assumptions at the UK universities stand threatened due to several reasons. There is lowered funding from traditional sources while the government expects the universities to self-sufficient (Hoorebeek & Marson, 2006). New technologies have altered the HE business model and the endowments to universities have decreased. Basically, what this translated into is that rising costs to incorporate technology and keep pace with other developed nations have forced the institutions to charge exorbitant fees as funding and endowments have decreased. IMPACT OF STRUCTURES ON FORMS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING INNOVATION Expectations of government towards education have changed with a greater emphasis on teaching and learning and how it is applied within the curriculum. “Teaching and learning are not only concerned with knowledge, cognition and skill. They are also emotional practices”. (Hargreaves 1998) Teaching and learning are sensitive, essential and paramount to the establishment and recognition of higher educational institutions. Teaching and learning is constantly updated through research flexible and innovative programmes, providing access to all participants. These areas if maintained enable institutions gain recognition as well as project credibility and quality. The traditional aspects of teaching and learning have moved on in time and both parties no longer need to be constrained to a particular environment or unit flexibility. The contemporary HE structure includes greater accountability, greater pressure on available resources, greater push for research activity and greater number of students to handle. It is argued that quality has been sacrificed for cost-effectiveness and that HE in UK falls short of the aspired goals of “promoting effective learning, independence of thought and awareness of alternative approaches to a subject” (Stefani, 1994, p. 25 cited by Kremer & McGuinness, 1998). Educationists have wanted to promote active learning at the expense of chalk and talk. This has led to the teaching quality to be scrutinized at each University Department. This has served to focus on the teaching methods and challenged the traditional methods of teaching. There is also a drive to make higher education more responsive to the needs of the employers. The concentration is to develop enterprising graduates in partnership with employers where the participating institutions receive grants. This led to innovative teaching and learning experience across higher education. Various forces have contributed to change the teaching and learning strategies which include increasing number of students, increasing staff/student ratio, and the practical difficulties in implementing innovative teaching and learning methods as the criterion for success is still judged to be a cost-effective undergraduate degree program. Independent learning and self-assessment skills To cope with the demands of higher education, changed curriculum and the expectations of the employer, students have to develop as independent learners (Cassidy, 2006). Self-assessment helps student to take responsibility for learning, encourages for self-motivation, and independence in learning. Meta cognitive skills are essential for this which includes the ability to monitor progress and seek help, be aware of one’s own strengths and weaknesses, initiate activities, find resources and plan tasks, targets and goals. Learning style can also vary across individuals and four different learning styles were assessed: deep, which expresses intention to understand, relate ideas, and use evidence; surface, where there is intention to reproduce, has unrelated memorizing, passive learning and fear of failure; strategic, which is a study organisation, time management, and an intention to excel; and apathetic where there is lack of direction and lack of interest. Research demonstrated that self-assessment skill was significantly positively correlated where the students had a deep approach. A deep approach to learning can be enhanced by improving students’ metacognitive skills. Such students receive higher tutor marks. When students expressed preferences for assessment format, they outperformed students who were not assessed according to their first choice of assessment format. These findings demonstrate that independent learning can bring about significant changes in students’ learning and learning experiences but with the government bureaucracy this is not feasible to a large extent. Such a learning environment can cultivate the development of both technical and non-technical skills. To achieve this, the interventionist tendencies of the government have to be eradicated. Besides, not all students are competent or willing for this method of assessment. Distance learning The long established and well accredited Open University has used distance learning to provide established recognised courses an example of higher education flourishing through innovative and flexible structures (Field, 2002, 206). New online courses by and large meet the expense of flexibility and online educational organisations such as Learn Direct having joined the band wagon. Distance learning helps the student to become a critical reflexive thinker and allows many students to receive education that would otherwise have been deprived of (Thompson et al., 2001). This innovative learning and teaching method is not driven technologically and it promotes wider and enhanced learning. Action learning Having failed to provide students with skill sets essential for modern businesses and industry, the universities have now adopted a new approach – action learning (Johnson & Spicer, 2006). In this approach participants come together as a group to work on workplace-centred problems on an ongoing basis. This approach is based on the assumption that when managers share their concerns and plans with like-minded colleagues they gain a better insight, inspiration and motivation to face the challenges. It is an experienced based approach where students learn through interaction. It is more demanding than the traditional taught programs but the outcomes are better. Students are better equipped to adjust to the changing demands of the workplace. Students are empowered within the learning process. Student-led or leaderless group is another scheme where the power structure or hierarchy is deliberately suppressed in the learning groups (Kremer & McGuinness). All participants are encouraged to play an active part. While this program is unique, difficulties arise at the time of assessment. If the tutor is not present in the group, external scrutiny becomes difficult and judgement by participants can be less than transparent. Thus, peer or self-assessment becomes necessary. To combat this, group reports or presentations are used for assessment. This was further innovated by the presence of a tutor who merely plays the role of an observer. Team work and group discussions have been found to be very effective because each student learns from what the others have read or during the discussions. Thus, students have a greater depth of understanding of the subject, and the class as a whole is benefited and not merely the meritorious students. This technique has to be resorted to due to the rising number of students and the rising staff/student ratio and the problem of accurate assessment remains unresolved. Use of ICT Thompson et al. (1991) stress the significance of the development of formal and informal networks. Computer networks create new forms and channels of communication, shaping the life and being shaped by life at the same time. The era of computers has imprinted influential effects on social contact and more importantly it is a media of research and an invaluable tool for information and learning. The twenty first century and information technology has created a means of breaking down barriers providing flexible learning through short programmes at varied levels in non confrontational environments, better still information able to be accessed from home. One of the most important areas of learning for adults is that which frees them from habitual ways of thinking and acting and involves them in what Mezirow (1978,1981) terms `perspective transformation simply stated becoming aware of how and why. Such innovative methods of teaching encourage greater numbers of individuals to participate and learning in turn can be tailored and projected over a period of time to meet specific skill objectives. (Lave 1998) maintains learning is best achieved when learning tasks are encountered, practiced and applied in the real world context. When South Yorkshire Further Education Consortium (SYFEC) wanted to enter the strategic and growing e-learning market place, they were faced with the challenge to develop the abilities of college teaching staff and learning support staff to tutor learners online (Duggleby et al., 2004). They first had to train people as online tutors. This required a change in attitude and behaviour as online teaching is entirely different from face-to-face teaching. SYFEC first trained tutors online and were successful in training teachers and teaching assistants. The ICT is now fully integrated into the curriculum. Schools today reflect, focus and plan forward with their ICT strategy. DfES is also taking initiatives not only to improve the ICT skills of the teachers but also support the use of ICT in teaching and learning across the curriculum. Training helped the level of confidence of the teachers. Schools reported greater efficiency. Thus, the HE structure has not been a constraint in the use of ICT in teaching. Industry participation in learning Deloitte, UK’s leading professional services organisation delivering world class assurance and advisory, tax and consulting services in more than 140 countries approached Lewisham College which is UK’s first Centre of Vocational Excellence in Computing and Information Technology for an e-skills4industry programme (Duggleby et al.,). Their purpose was to train those who had underachieved, make them employable for entry-level even for their own offices and at the same time reduce their own recruiting costs. While the company encountered several challenges during the implementation of the program, at the end of the program the trainees reported that they had sufficient technical knowledge to make a positive contribution at the workplace. The trainees could demonstrate confidence, enthusiasm, motivation and commitment to the employers but this is often associated with the government allowing such collaboration in the interest of the national economy. Teaching and learning with images The presentation of material through images is educationally effective. According to Levin (1989, p 83), pictures interact with texts to produce levels of comprehension and memory that can exceed what is produced by text alone (Mowat, 2002). Images communicate ideas and help the learner experience the subject in a more comprehensive way that can be explained in verbal terms. This is based on the premise that learning takes place through sensory modalities and the more senses are involved, learning becomes deeply embedded. Power points and slide shows have become common to enhance teaching and learning. This innovative learning and teaching promotes reflection and the student has a deeper understanding rather than relying on class-handouts or listening to lectures. This requires careful course designing by the institutions. The constrain in this approach is that teachers find it too time consuming to design such courses due to wide variety of courses on offer and the rising number of students. Study Guides Another innovative way of teaching was devised by Thompson et al who wanted the working students to be armed with lecture notes before attending the lecture sessions. These students require higher education but are forced by circumstances to keep working. Time being a constrain for them these lecture notes distributed before the actual lecture helped them to be prepared with questions, led to a deeper and easier understanding of the subject and it was easy for them to take notes. This too is not technologically drives, promotes students participation and the higher education structures do not pose a barrier. On the other hand, it facilitates learning for those who would otherwise have remained deprived. Hoorebeek and Marson contend that moving away from traditional methods of teaching and learning can have far fetched consequences. Traditional teaching methods cannot work for large number of students that are now eager to take up HE but admitting large number of students can lead to undue stress on both the academic and administrative structures within a university. Due to financial constraints students now have to contribute towards the fees. This makes them demand services at par with other universities across the world. One such retired pilot alleged that he received poor teaching and inadequate facilities at University of Wolverhampton and was awarded £30,000 for out of court settlement. Constrains also arise due to mixed ability groups due to diversity of student intake. It is conceivable that external support in certain disciplines is equally valuable to individual learners. In many areas of higher education constrains on resources arise which means demands for teaching and learning may not always be conducive to all, moreover the implications that sufficient course material may not be generated at all levels of demand pose an area of concern. The reality to costs production of materials as well as expertise with technology itself bear a sizeable expenditure and higher institutions who offer such services depend on a reliable and dependable source of funding to man such proficiency. While information technology has cut through distance and barriers to some extent, not all individuals and cultures are prepared to readily take on the flag ship of technology due to financial constrains and inadequate infra structure. Financial issues within higher institutions are paramount to success and if learners in turn are to cough up sizeable amounts for fees then there has to be a guarantee that institutions will be able to deliver the goods and resources. Contemporary higher education has transferred and transformed personal learning into collective learning with an emphasis on work and learning. The more one looks into Higher education the more it seems to have become a fast business for British economy due to its nature that of not being static but constantly redefining and expanding according to internationalization and the availability of resource. The whole scenario of teaching and learning appears a political process that leads only to change and appears to be a disorganization of set patterns. Higher institutional structures have become `learning organisations` in that learning has not just increased but institutions and organisations are inevitably learning through research moving from the learner to the institution. Drawing on Pedler et al. who suggests that a learning company is not brought about by simply training individuals; it can only happen as a result of learning at the whole organisation level. A learning company is an organisation that facilitates the learning of all its members and continuously transforms itself. (Pedler et al., 1991 p1) CONCLUSION To encourage a learning society, innovation has to be the rule. Achieving change in the higher education system cannot be done overnight. Change of culture and attitude has to be faced specially when there has been a tradition of autonomy from government. To bring about a change in 132 universities is by no means an easy task. Higher education institutions have opened up new environments not just for learners by creating access and participation but by introducing teaching and learning through information technology which is able to save time and cut across distances. Learning is now at one’s doorstep and institutional commitment no longer calls for academic competence minimizing the role of the facilitator. Arguments, debates and controversies would continue in any framework but what needs to be understood is that to handle the rising number of students, the rising costs and the rising student/staff ratio, the government has to allow industry participation to make people employable, even if this is labeled a ‘political’ move. High rate of fees are justified considering the reduction in endowments and charitable grants. Nevertheless, courses on offer have to be seen as beneficial and sustainable in present economic trends bridging the gap of economic dwindle not just `courses for horses`. New courses need in-depth market research to establish viability and guarantee for employment only then can it be concluded without contest that the culture in higher education enhances teaching and learning. Higher education can achieve positive outcomes if organizational culture is explicit and academic collegiality is present. Dopson and Mc Nay consider this to be:….a combination of rituals, routines, myths and symbols that gives very clear messages about what is seen as acceptable and unacceptable behavior. However, an organization’s culture is also influenced by the way in which power is distributed in the organization, and how work is structured and controlled. Culture is therefore a combination of values, structure and power that has implications for every aspect of an organization’s operations and external relationships.(Dopson and McNay, 1996:20-21) Different ways in which Higher education is known to embrace teaching and learning has been addressed. The emphasis on the learners’ responsibility for personal learning can be argued because it is dependent on structural factors such as housing, health and other jobs. If individuals are educated the chances of employability opens up a more secure existence and the likely hood of living in dearth is eradicated. Families living in poverty, whose children are more likely to experience educational failure of exclusion, are also at risk of poorer health, more frequent hospitalisation and higher mortality rate, inferior housing, family background and long term unemployment. (Acheson 1999) Finally the importance of adopting consultation with stakeholders would take into recognition the fast changing demands of the learners as well as the community. This in turn clears misconceptions of what the higher institutes are about and their function. Services provided should be reliable and the quality of program should be transparent meeting with government’s expectation. Performance indicators and institutional ratings should be constantly updated to keep in line with government audit. In the current climate failure of cohesion between higher educational institutions could add pressures on institutions teaching and learning thereby building constrains. Universities can no longer continue in the same fashion. They have the choice to be innovative and also need to be perceptive to the requirements of individuals. Overall, the HE structure helps innovative teaching and learning and does not constrain the development of education. References Acheson, D. (Chair) (1999) An Individual into the inequalities in health, London. The Stationary Office. Bradley,D. (1997b) `Inventing the future: Australian higher education response`, keynote paper to the Third Indonesian Distant Learning Network Symposium, distant Education and Open Learning: Future Visions ,Bali, Indonesia, 17-20 November. Dearing and Fryer reports`, Oxford Review of Education, 24 (4), 473-485. DfEE 1994 DfEE 1998a Labour Market and Skills Trends 1998/99, Sudbury: DfEE. DfEE (1998) The Learning Age: A Renaissance for a New Britain, London: Dopson,S. and McNay, 1. (1996) `Organizational culture`, in D Warner and D .Paifreyman (eds) Higher Educational Management, The Key Elements,Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Field, J. (2000) `governing the ungovernable: explaining why lifelong policies promise so much and deliver so little`. Ford, P. et al. (1996) Managing Change in Higher Education, A Learning Environment Architecture, London: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Guile, D. and Young, M. (1986b) Apprenticeship as the social basis of learning, Journal and Vocational Education, 50 (2): 173-193. Hargreaves, D. (1999) “The knowledge creating school”, British journal of Educational Studies, 47, 2, pp. 122145 Howells, K. (1997), Howells welcomes Kennedy report to the further education debate, Department for Education and Employment Press Release 1 July. King, B. (1998) `Distance education in Australia`, in H. Perraton (ed) Open Learning for the New Society: The Role of Higher Education, Vancouver: Commonwealth of Learning. Lave J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate peripheral participation, New York, Cambridge University Press. Mezirow, J. (1978). Perspective transformation. Adult Education. Pedler, M..,Burgoyne,J., and Boydell., T. (1991) The learning company: a strategy for sustainable development, London, McGraw-Hill. Schultz, T. W. (1961) Investment in human capital, American Economic Review. Reid, J. (1997) `Summary of discussions`, paper prepared for the National Academics Forum. Tucker, A. (1997) Lifelong Learning in England and Wales. An Overview and Guide to Issues Arising From European Year of Lifelong Learning, Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education. 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