Constructivist Learning and VLEs - Essay Example

Constructivist Learning and VLEs Introduction Psychologists and philosophers have always been fascinated by the process of learning and have developed theories and models of learning. Behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist models of learning have formed the basis of instructional designs, through course of the history of education. Even today, researchers are engaged in finding better and effective ways to prepare students for the workplace, and enabling them to retrieve and effectively use what they have learned. The traditional method involving lecture by the instructor and simple exercises for students to memorize the lesson are found to be inadequate in addressing the real-life problems and workplace requirements, including working in teams, ability to communicate etc. The instructional design theories had been undergoing significant amendments as theorists upgraded from behaviourist model toward cognitive and post-modern constructivist theories about learning and education. The Constructivist model for learning and instructional theory, building upon the traditional behaviourist theory and cognitive theory of learning, has evolved as the most effective learning theory in addressing the educational issues that the traditional theories fail to address or solve. The constructivist problem based approach implies multiple perspectives, maintaining and evaluating the process of learning as a subjective phenomenon as compared to the objective approach of learning in traditional approach. The basis of constructivist theory: Learning theories are the basis of instructional-design theories. Reigeluth comments that the relationship between a learning theory and an instructional theory could be equated to that of a house and its foundation. Problem-based learning (PBL), is a constructivist learning model, which is fundamentally an instructional-design theory. Reigeluth observes that a theory is considered to be an instructional theory if it “offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop.” 1 As the name implies, constructivist theories are based on the assumption that students must construct their own ideas through the guidance of a teacher. Here the teacher is a mere guide and the student shoulders the responsibility of unravelling knowledge for themselves. In constructivist model of education, there is no memorising of theory and data. Students have to reach upon their conclusions and have to develop knowledge by themselves. As Miller suggests, if the learner is to acquire specific knowledge, then the instruction must employ the correct instructional strategy for promoting the acquisition of that kind of knowledge. 2 There is substantial evidence that Socrates, Plato et al. encouraged or even demanded their students to opine on ideas, to research and analyze the information gathered, and prompted them to discuss and debate on new ideas, so as to deduce the best possible conclusion on the topic. Though known the as the best of teachers of all times, these philosophers seldom used the teacher-cantered approach that is in use presently in most of the schools. Many universities even toady follow the Platonian and Socratic approach in teaching classics. Cognitive Constructivism propounded by Piaget believes in the supremacy of mind in learning process and considers the organization of information around concepts, problems, and the interrelationships of associated subjects and ideas. The theory is premised on the notion that though teacher leads the class though his instructional program, thinking and learning is essentially the responsibility of students and that a student builds on the prior knowledge of a subject, exploring and processing new information and addressing misconceptions, thereby promoting the student’s question-asking behaviour. Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism focuses on the social transactions of the mind and its acculturation into a community. The theory considers learning activities as “relevant, meaningful and both product and process oriented” with in learning environments that demonstrate real-world complexities. The social constructivist learning theory encourages group-based learning involving idea sharing, discussion, questioning and the processing of individual learning experiences with in teams. The teacher is only a facilitator, clarifying doubts whenever required. As a comprehensive instructional theory ‘Problem Based Learning’ was originally developed in the early 1970s for the medical students at McMaster University Medical School in Hamilton, Canada. Barrows, teaching medicine at the university and the main brain behind problem based learning, observed that even though the students gained considerable information on a subject, they seemed to be incapable of applying the knowledge in practical real-life situations. Barrows who believed that medical students should build up and secure their knowledge around clinical problems, developed a learning system based on the case-study method practiced at the Harvard Law School and the discovery learning approach that was explained by Bruner. 3 Under the system, students were required to analyze the problems put forth by patients and to assimilate information from the different disciplines, which were needed to resolve the problem. Thus learning became problem-centred, and the learning model, problem-based learning. During the 1970s and 1980s problem based learning, was mostly considered an appropriate theory for medical education only. Since the late 1990s the theory began to be extended to other disciplines as well and is now applied effective and successfully in health sciences, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, nursing, public health, engineering, social work, business, law, education, and so on. Problem Based Learning – Definition, Constructs and Characteristics: Finkle and Torp (1995) defines problem-based learning as, “a curriculum development and instructional system that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems.” 4 Though the definition presents a complex dimension, the concept of problem-based learning is relatively simple – enabling learning from negotiating on real-world problems in a meaningful context. The learning process is expected to develop critical and lateral thinking and problem-solving ability in students. Characteristics of constructivist learning: Constructivist theory of learning presents a set of specific characteristics, which are considered while designing an instruction model based on the learning system. Barrows identifies the essential characteristics of problem based learning as Learning is student or learner cantered Learning occurs in small student groups, Problems are central to the learning process Teachers are facilitators or guides, New information is acquired through self-directed learning. 5 6 However, there are certain other fundamental characteristics as well as listed below: Use of real world problems, problems essentially dictating the curriculum Problems do not in itself test skills; rather they facilitate the development of skills. The problems are truly ill-structured, so that subjective solutions evolve The system produces independent, life-long learners, enabling them to be capable of solving real life, particularly work-place problems effectively. 7 An immediate objective of PBL is that students become responsible for their own learning and for deciding on the resources they will use in solving a problem. Hence all through the PBL process, as students define and analyze the problem posed to them, they generate "learning issues" or questions that need to be answered in order to solve the problem. The design of the problem and questioning by the tutor facilitate students to identify and frame learning-issues relevant to the objectives and content of the curriculum. Though some versions of PBL provide pre-set learning issues for students in the form of objectives, in most of the models students are completely responsible for identifying their learning needs. When the problem is formulated and analyzed to the point that further analysis and understanding is inhibited by their lack of knowledge, the students undertake their self-directed learning, guided by the learning issues. The ultimate objective of problem based learning is thus to foster life-long learning by learners, enabling them to tackle real-world problems, especially work place problems more effectively. Edwin Bridges (1992) in his study titled Problem Based Learning for Administrators, proposes that there are two types of Problem Based Learning (PBL) models-- Problem Stimulated PBL and Student Cantered PBL. Problem Stimulated PBL (PS PBL): Problem stimulated PBL uses role relevant problems in order to introduce and learn new knowledge. PS PBL emphasizes the development of domain-specific skills, development of problem-solving skills and acquisition of domain-specific knowledge Under the PS PBL system, the student is posed with a problem and presented with a list of objectives that the student would need to achieve by solving the problem. The student is also provided with a list of references, with respect to the objectives and also questions that would guide the learning process. The PS PBL process: The problem or project is presented to the students with a fixed time allotment to resolve the problem Students form teams, each student having a specific role -- leader, facilitator, recorder, or team member The teams prepare a schedule of activities to suit the time allotment s its own activities and decides how to use the allotted time The teams work through the project, resolve the problem, and achieve the learning objectives. The student and team performance is evaluated by self, peers and instructors using observation, questionnaires, interviews, and other evaluation methods. The instructors essentially serve as resources to the teams and provide guidance and direction, if required by the teams. Student Cantered PBL (SC PBL): Student cantered PBL is similar to problem stimulated PBL in most of the aspects, including presentation of the problem and study aids and the process. As with PS PBL, in SC PBL also students are empowered to appropriately use the newly acquired knowledge to solve the problem at hand. What differentiates SC PBL from PS PBL is that the main objective of SC PBL is nurturing life-long learning skills. Thus the main differences in SC PBL are in student responsibilities towards learning, the student fundamentally having self defined learning issues, determining the subjects to be mastered and deciding and locating the resources himself. SC PBL is commonly adopted by medical schools. Virtual Learning Environment in constructivist learning initiatives: In the educational sector, the Internet has in a big way extended the reach of universities and reports suggest that more people are able to pursue the long distance courses offered by many educational institutions. The long distance learning process which depended a lot on video cassettes and audio, emphasized the distance between the student and the teacher. Today, the internet has significantly bridged this gap and students can interact with their teachers as well as other students in real time. The ever changing technology also ensures that geographical distances need not be a constraint for people to interact in real time. The best part of this is that all these happen at a fraction of the cost of other technologies. In addition students can scan through courses offered and apply to their favourite colleges all through the net. 8 The reach of the Internet is becoming more in the United Kingdom thanks to the popularity that it has received among the people of UK. In fact it is believed that the reach of computerization in the UK is far more than the rest of Europe [Matthew Cobb, 2000]. Even though the United Kingdom lags behind the US in terms of Internet usage, the number of users is definitely increasing in this country. The statistic for 2000 says that the number of Internet users in this country was 10 million. The nineties saw the development of technologies that went a long way in including constructivist perspectives in a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). Some the advances were • Extensive digitisation of all media • Powerful and personal computers • Development of user-friendly interfaces • The development of web technologies • Diffusion of computing technologies E-learning technologies have been found to enable collaborative working and foster student-centred learning. VLE software is basically a suite of applications that combine communication tools, collaboration tools, content creation tools, assessment tools and activity tracking tools. These systems can be integrated with institutional management information systems and can provide controlled access to curriculum resources. In such a system, students can develop their own ideas while being assessed and monitored by a mentor. According to a research report there are approximately 500 VLEs in use in UK. However, “the school sector VLE market is still very immature.” 9 Most of them provide similar functionality and aid in faster distribution of study materials, enables communication between students and moderators, and encourages collaboration that can help in the development of newer ideas. Grabinger and Dunlap (1995) opine that second generation VLE’s supports communication and collaboration in students. Similarly, Milligan (1999) and Britain and Liber (1999) have reviewed commercially developed VLE’s and VLE’s developed in-house that are currently in use in UK institutions. According to the Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) there are significant pedagogical advantages of virtual learning environments such as: • Better student-staff interaction • Improved student communication skills • Improved peer support • Deeper levels of student discussion. 10 However, not all VLE initiatives are effective in helping students achieve their goals. Ideally, VLE sessions must include online activity to encourage students to communicate, discuss and draw their own conclusions on problems presented to them. 11 Conclusion: Research is increasingly establishing the student preference towards problem based learning as compared to the traditional lecture-based learning. The higher-ordered thinking and problem solving in the context of real-world examples makes PBL an appropriate learning theory that fits the learning and educational needs of students, both today and in the impending future. The increasing use of technology in educational programs is prompting the development of more comprehensive virtual PBL systems that would make learning and research a real life-long process. Works Cited Barrows, H. S. 1985. How to design a problem-based curriculum for the preclinical years. New York: Springer Publishing Co. Bonisteel, Steven. 2000. Internet Transforming Campuses. Newsbytes News Network. Issue: March 28, 2000. Bruner, J. S. 1959. Learning and Thinking. Harvard Education. 29:184-192. Bridges, E., and Hallinger, P. 1992. Problem Based Learning for Administrators. ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. University of Oregon. Birchall, D., and Smith, M. 1996. Applying groupware in management education including distance learning. Active Learning, 5. Britain, S. Liber, O. 1999. A Framework for Pedagogical Evaluation of Virtual Learning Environments. University of Wales – Bangor. Sara, Dunn. 2003. Return to SENDA? Implementing accessibility for disabled students in virtual learning environments in UK further and higher education. http://www.saradunn.net/VLEreport/section05.html (accessed May 1, 2007). Gill, C., & Shaw, et al. 2004. Specifying and purchasing VLEs: the School Perspective, online atferl.becta.org.uk/content_files/pages/news_events/events/2004/January/8_spec_shaw_gill.doc (accessed May 1, 2007). Grabinger, S., and Dunlap, J. 1995. Rich Definitions for Active Learning: A definition in The Changing Face of Learning Technology Eds Squires, Conole and Jacobs. University of Wales Press. Cobb, Matthew. 2000. Tracking the Internet effect IT Management: E-Business. http://www.computerweekly.com/Article23672.htm (accessed May 1, 2007). Merrill, M. D. 1996. Instructional Transaction Theory: Instructional Design Based on Knowledge Objects. Educational Technology. May-June. vol. 36, no. 3, p. 30-37. Milligan, C.1998. The role of VLEs in on-line delivery of staff development JTAP Report. 573 http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk/jtap-573 (accessed May 1, 2007). Reigeluth, C. M. 1999. What is instructional design theory and how is it changing? In C. M. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional-design theories and models volume II: A new paradigm of instructional theory, (pp. 1-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Stepien, W., and Gallagher, S. A. 1993. Problem-based Learning: As Authentic as it Gets. Educational Leadership. 50(7), 25-28. Salmon, G. 2000. E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. London: Kogan Page. Savery, J. R., and Duffy, T. M. 1995. Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology, 35, 31-38. Read More