Critical Thinking Concept - Term Paper Example

Critical thinking Critical thinking College: Critical thinking is a concept that has been in existence since mid-late 20th century. Critical thinking is an intellectually disciplined process that involves active and skillful conceptualization, application, synthesis, and evaluation of information collected through observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a focus to belief and action. Critical thinking is a concept that surpasses subject matter divisions such as clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevancy, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth and fairness. Australians universities have put mandatory demands on students to develop critical thinking skills not only for English proficiency but for acquiring strong academic culture. Critical thing in Australian universities is a key factor in upgrading student's study skills (Triyoko, 2007). Critical thinking is an examination of the structures or elements of thought contained in all reasoning, such as purpose, problem, question-at-issue, assumptions, empirical grounding, reasoning towards conclusion, implications and consequences, obstructions from alternative view point, and frame of reference. Critical thinking can also be reflected through a person's curiosity to respond to variable subject matter, issues and purposes. Critical thinking is a concept that is incorporated in a company of intertwined modes of thinking, such as scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking and philosophical thinking. Critical thinking exists in two components; one, critical thinking is viewed as a set of information and belief generating and processing skills. Two, critical thinking is viewed as a habit whose basis is strongly laid on intellectual commitment to use those skills to in guiding behavior. Critical thinking therefore, is very different from; mere acquisition and retention of information, because critical thinking has a peculiar way of seeking, attaining and treating information. Again, critical thinking is different from sheer possession of a set of skills, because, critical thinking is only complete if it exercises use of those skills continuously (Scriven & Paul, 1987). Critical thinking is not made a concept merely by acquiring skills and putting them into practice; it is fulfilled if the skills put into practice are observed to produce results which must be analyzed and accepted to be important into a certain body of knowledge. Critical thinking is governed by some specific motive guidance. Critical thinking which is guided by selfish motives is characteristic of skillful manipulation of ideas to suit the personal interests. Such motivated critical thinking is void of intellectuality, however practically successful it might be. Although such kind of motivated critical thinking can be directed by fair mind and intellectual integrity, it produces results of high order in terms of intellectuality; however, it is not innocent of biasness from idealism connected to its selfish motive. Critical thinking lacks universality in any individual (Scriven & Paul, 1987). All people are culprits of irrational thought. Its quality therefore depends on the quality and depth of experience in a particular field of thinking. The development of critical thinking is continual. It never stops. No one is a critical thinker all along. There are several strategies that are relevant for developing critical thinking in any individual, students included. In this paper, I will evaluate only three of the most common strategies of developing critical thinking used by tutors and students in the Australian Universities. These are, Affective Strategies, Cognitive Strategies - Macro-Abilities, and finally, Cognitive Strategies-Micro-Skills. Under Affective strategies, there are 9 strategies which generate ability to develop exercise critical thinking. I will discuss only one of these. This one is, Thinking Independently. Thinking independently refers to the ability to make decisions on one self, without allowing influence from other people. A student must learn to form believes for irrational reasons without relying on other individuals to choose for them what is good for them. For instance, a student must learn to critically think of the time he or she spends on any activity. For a student to be a good planner, especially with time and money, he or she must develop an individual deliberate way of choosing what to do with what time or money when, and do this without consulting other people who may not feel the pressure behind the desire to choose the action intended. In order to form beliefs through thinking independently, one does not passively accept other people's beliefs. The person forming the beliefs must figure out things for him- or herself, ignoring all unjustified authorities, and appreciate all the contributions of the genuine authorities. The person must form thoughtful principles of thoughts and actions. A critical thinker following the principles of independent thinking to develop critical thinking skills, must learn to make a comparison between categories and distinctions to weigh the appropriateness of each category, then choose to apply the most appropriate. To think independently, one must be strong willed enough not to be swayed by the commonly accepted way of doing things. The person must be able to evaluate goals and the way to achieve them. To be a critical thinker by thinking independently, learn to approach beliefs at a rational point of view whereby, any belief that is not understandable to you is not simply acceptable of rejected. One must remain neutral at such times (Paul, 1987). To successfully develop critical thinking skills by thinking independently, be open minded enough to incorporate all known relevant knowledge, into your thoughts and behavior. Be witty enough to determine when information is relevant, capable of application in search of results, or put to practice certain skills. Also, develop self-critique techniques so that you can judge when you are not right. The second strategy I will discus is based on Cognitive Strategies - Macro-Abilities category of critical thinking strategies. This strategy is called, Clarifying Issues, Conclusions or Beliefs. Critical thinkers find issues to be helpful if they are clear, complete, and accurate in formation. In order to develop critical thinking, a student, must strive to identify the requirement of the issue. Recognize what the issue requires before you evaluate its conclusions and solutions. As a critical thinker, learn to speculate the meaning of an issue before denying or accepting it. First, recognize the problematic claim, concept, and standards of evaluation (Potts, 1994). After understanding, apply relevant and intellectually guided judgments on the issue. Distinguish facts from opinions, interpretations, judgments and theories. Then, critically raise questions that can assist you to interpret and understand the issue, and then, apply evaluation strategies. The third strategy is linked to the third category of strategies of critical thinking; Cognitive Strategies-Micro-Skills. This strategy is, Recognizing Contradictions. This strategy is governed by the principle of consistency as a fundamental of critical thinking. To develop critical thinking skills, a student must learn to eradicate contradicting issues from his or her beliefs, and be susceptible to contradictions in other people's beliefs. Be in a position to identify identical beliefs and be able to apply similar judgments in the cases or issues. As a critical thinker, be keen to identify the consistency between words and deeds. Be capable of manning Self-serving double standards in you (Paul, 1987). Focus on your conflicting views, and choose to pursue that which is consisted and intellectually appropriate. In conclusion, critical thinking is a concept that individuals can willingly develop. Engaging into affairs that call for critical thinking creates a favorable ground for developing critical thinking skills. Students must, not a matter of choice, develop critical thinking skills. The strategies are simple to follow. Affective Strategies, Cognitive Strategies - Macro-Abilities, and finally, Cognitive Strategies-Micro-Skills are the categories of the strategies that are applicable in developing critical thinking skills. All students should know that, critical thinking is a self-imposed exercise, and it keeps on developing inhuman. As I had mentioned earlier, the Australian Universities have give critical thinking skills a first priority as a key to develop study skills in their students. This is the ultimate reason for the universities to teach these skills to all new students as a bridging program into the Universities. Reference: Paul, R. (1987). Critical Thinking Handbook: K-3, a Guide for Remodeling Lesson Plans in Language Arts, Social. Ed. Foundation of Critical Thinking. Foundation for Critical. Potts, B. (1994). Strategies for teaching Critical thing. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, Vol. 4. Issue 3. Scriven M. & Paul R. (1987). Defining Critical Thinking. Ed. Foundation of Critical Thinking. Foundation for Critical Thinking. Triyoko, H. (2007). The teaching of critical thinking skills. Jakatapsot. Issue 637 THE ASSIGNMENT CONDITIONS CONDITION 1 Critical Thinking as Defined by the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987 A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul for the {presented at the 8th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform, Summer 1987}. Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue; assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions; implications and consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and frame of reference. Critical thinking- in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes- is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking. Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: 1) a set of information and belief generating and processing skills, and 2) the habit, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behavior. It is thus to be contrasted with: 1) the mere acquisition and retention of information alone, because it involves a particular way in which information is sought and treated; 2) the mere possession of a set of skills, because it involves the continual use of them; and 3) the mere use of those skills ("as an exercise") without acceptance of their results. Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When grounded in selfish motives, it is often manifested in the skillful manipulation of ideas in service of one''s own, or one's groups'', vested interest. As such it is typically intellectually flawed, however pragmatically successful it might be. When grounded in fairmindedness and intellectual integrity, it is typically of a higher order intellectually, though subject to the charge of "idealism" by those habituated to its selfish use. Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to episodes of undisciplined or irrational thought. Its quality is therefore typically a matter of degree and dependent on , among other things, the quality and depth of experience in a given domain of thinking or with respect to a particular class of questions. No one is a critical thinker through-and-through, but only to such-and-such a degree, with such-and-such insights and blind spots, subject to such-and-such tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of critical thinking skills and dispositions is a life-long endeavor CONDITION 2 S-1 Thinking Independently Principle: Critical thinking is independent thinking, thinking for oneself. Many of our beliefs are acquired at an early age, when we have a strong tendency to form beliefs for irrational reasons (because we want to believe, because we are praised or rewarded for believing). Critical thinkers use critical skills and insights to reveal and reject beliefs that are irrational. In forming new beliefs, critical thinkers do not passively accept the beliefs of others; rather, they try to figure things out for themselves, reject unjustified authorities, and recognize the contributions of genuine authorities. They thoughtfully form principles of thought and action; they do not mindlessly accept those presented to them. Nor are they unduly influenced by the language of another. If they find that a set of categories or distinctions is more appropriate than that used by another, they will use it. Recognizing that categories serve human purposes, they use those categories which best serve their purpose at the time. They are not limited by accepted ways of doing things. They evaluate both goals and how to achieve them. They do not accept as true, or reject as false, beliefs they do not understand. They are not easily manipulated. Independent thinkers strive to incorporate all known relevant knowledge and insight into their thought and behavior. They strive to determine for themselves when information is relevant, when to apply a concept, or when to make use of a skill. They are self-monitoring: they catch their own mistakes; they don't need to be told what to do every step of the way. S-13 Clarifying Issues, Conclusions, or Beliefs Principle: The more completely, clearly, and accurately an issue or statement is formulated, the easier and more helpful the discussion of its settlement or verification. Given a clear statement of an issue, and prior to evaluating conclusions or solutions, it is important to recognize what is required to settle it. And before we can agree or disagree with a claim, we must understand it clearly. It makes no sense to say "I don't know what you mean, but I deny it, whatever it is." Critical thinkers recognize problematic claims, concepts, and standards of evaluation, making sure that understanding precedes judgment. They routinely distinguish facts from interpretations, opinions, judgments, or theories. They can then raise those questions most appropriate to understanding and evaluating each. S-34 Recognizing Contradictions Principle: Consistency is a fundamental-some would say the defining-ideal of critical thinkers. They strive to remove contradictions from their beliefs, and are wary of contradictions in others. As would-be fairminded thinkers they strive to judge like cases in a like manner. Perhaps the most difficult form of consistency to achieve is that between word and deed. Self-serving double standards are one of the most common problems in human life. Children are in some sense aware of the importance of consistency. ("Why don't I get to do what they get to do") They are frustrated by double standards, yet are given little help in getting insight into them and dealing with them. Critical thinkers can pinpoint specifically where opposing arguments or views contradict each other, distinguishing the contradictions from compatible beliefs, thus focusing their analyses of conflicting views. CONDITION 3 CONDITION 4 Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking. Bonnie Potts, American Institutes for Research Critical thinking skills figure prominently among the goals for education, whether one asks developers of curricula, educational researchers, parents, or employers. Although there are some quite diverse definitions of critical thinking, nearly all emphasize the ability and tendency to gather, evaluate, and use information effectively (Beyer, 1985). In this article, we discuss skills related to critical thinking and three specific strategies for teaching these skills: 1) Building Categories, 2) Finding Problems, and 3) Enhancing the Environment. SKILLS RELATED TO CRITICAL THINKING Across subject areas and levels, educational research has identified several discrete skills related to an overall ability for critical thinking. These are: Finding analogies and other kinds of relationships between pieces of information Determining the relevance and validity of information that could be used for structuring and solving problems Finding and evaluating solutions or alternative ways of treating problems Just as there are similarities among the definitions of critical thinking across subject areas and levels, there are several generally recognized "hallmarks" of teaching for critical thinking (see, for example, Beyer, 1985; Costa, 1985). These include: Promoting interaction among students as they learn - Learning in a group setting often helps each member achieve more. Asking open-ended questions that do not assume the "one right answer" - Critical thinking is often exemplified best when the problems are inherently ill-defined and do not have a "right" answer. Open-ended questions also encourage students to think and respond creatively, without fear of giving the "wrong" answer. Allowing sufficient time for students to reflect on the questions asked or problems posed - Critical thinking seldom involves snap judgments; therefore, posing questions and allowing adequate time before soliciting responses helps students understand that they are expected to deliberate and to ponder, and that the immediate response is not always the best response. Teaching for transfer - The skills for critical thinking should "travel well." They generally will do so only if teachers provide opportunities for students to see how a newly acquired skill can apply to other situations and to the student's own experience. BUILDING CATEGORIES (after Seiger-Ehrenberg, 1985) Students often are given (and asked to memorize) explicit rules for classifying information. For example, there is a set of criteria for determining whether a word is being used as a noun or as a verb. The Building Categories strategy, however, is an inductive reasoning tool that helps students categorize information by discovering the rules rather than merely memorizing them. Such active learning typically results in better understanding and better retention of the concepts and related material than is possible with a more directive teaching method. Example: Distinguishing animals from plants. Students work in two groups (Animal Group and Plant Group). Worksheets prepared in advance ask for information about life span, energy sources, motility, anatomy, etc., of several different animals and plants. Once the information is collected, it is compiled into large wall charts (one for Animals, one for Plants). At this point, some questions can be posed to both groups at once: What are the similarities among the members of each group What are the differences between the two groups How could the following statement be completed: "An animal is different from a plant because..." The teacher provides appropriate feedback throughout, using open-ended questions to help students identify inadequate or inaccurate categorization rules. Finally, the students are allowed to test the generalizability of their proposed rules by looking at new instances and placing them in the appropriate category. The strategy is described here in the context of a science problem, but can work equally well in other disciplines and with more abstract categories. For example, students in Social Studies can learn the rules for "discoveries" versus "inventions," and students of jurisprudence can discover the differences between "felonies" and "misdemeanors." FINDING PROBLEMS Many students and teachers alike have lamented that the format of problems in the classroom (particularly in math and science) bears little resemblance to the way problems look in real life. In fact, one of the most important practical thinking skills one can acquire is knowing how to identify a problem. The Finding Problems strategy is a way of framing tasks so that students use skills similar to those needed for the ill-defined problems they will encounter in life. Tasks developed with this strategy are sufficiently defined as to be solvable, but do not state explicitly which variable or aspect of the problem will constitute or enable a solution. Consider the following physics problem (adapted from Harvie, 1987): "Brian, all 72 kg of him, bungee-jumps from a 100-m tower toward the river below. He falls 35 m before the bungee cord starts to stretch. This cord can stretch 40% of its length and has a breaking strength of 7000 N. Will this become a "free fall" for Brian, or will he "bounce back" Consider an alternate version of this problem, in which the last sentence is replaced by the following: "When the bungee cord has reached its maximum length, does the tension exceed the cord's breaking strength" Several aspects of the first version make it more effective for encouraging students to think rather than simply to look for the appropriate quantities to "plug in" to a formula. The first version does not specify what must be calculated; therefore, it requires students to decide for themselves just what the problem is and how their knowledge of Physics can be used to solve it. Teachers can help students learn to solve problems of this type by first providing them with a set of general questions, such as: How are the objects and situations in the problem similar to any objects or situations that were discussed in Physics Which variables are already in Physics terms and which can be converted to Physics terms Are all of the pieces of information in the problem relevant to its solution Problem-finding is an excellent group activity, particularly if two or more groups work on the same task independently and then come together to compare strategies. In this way, each student has the benefit of exposure to several ways of solving the problem. ENHANCING THE ENVIRONMENT (after Keefe & Walberg, 1992) Critical thinking in the classroom is facilitated by a physical and intellectual environment that encourages a spirit of discovery. Regarding the physical layout of the classroom, two suggestions can be offered. First, if seating is arranged so that students share the "stage" with the teacher and all can see and interact with each other, this helps to minimize the passive, receptive mode many students adopt when all are facing the teacher. Second, visual aids in the classroom can encourage ongoing attention to critical thought processes, e.g., posting signs that say, "Why do I think that" "Is it fact or opinion" "How are these two things alike" "What would happen if..." Suggestions below each question can remind students how they should go about answering them. Most importantly, as the students move through the curriculum in a given subject, their attention can be directed periodically to the signs as appropriate. In this way, the signs emphasize the idea of transfer by showing that many of the same thinking strategies and skills apply to different topics and problems. Read More