Encouragement of Excellence in the Performance of Student Gymnasts - Essay Example

The encouragement of excellence in the performance gymnasts through positive reinforcement and successive approximation. Introduction In discussing the motor skills involved in gymnastic pursuits we are concerned with bringing about improvements in co-ordinated actions that lead to skilled behavior. In order for skill in gymnastic activities to be achieved the individual must both have the potential for acquiring the skill and an environment that provides the opportunity in which the targeted skill can develop. On one hand the teacher may simply elect to provide the appropriate environment and facilities, leaving students to teach themselves, or alternatively the teacher may choose to dominate the learning situation. Between these two extremes psychology, especially in relation to the learning of co-ordinated movements, can help to decide the most effective balance. Learning, however, is a complex process, the principles of which are not always obvious, thus the need for careful inspection. By examining these principles we will be in a better position to assess how they can be applied to physical education. Psychology is about theories as to what leads people to behave in particular ways in different situations. Learning and motivation are important aspects of human behavior and have been the subject of much research. From the perspective of motor skills, learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in ability resulting from experience and training as a progression from simple to more complex, sophisticated movements Operant Conditioning and Behavior Shaping in the Teaching of Physical Education. Operant conditioning is a psychological technique for modifying behavior that is particularly relevant to how psychology can be helpful to the teaching of gymnastics. The technique is defined as a voluntary response that is strengthened or weakened according to immediately following consequences. Organisms therefore have a tendency to repeat those actions that are reinforced in particular ways that result in a change of behavior. Behaviorism, as this approach to learning is called, is based on those aspects of behavior that are overtly observable. Because behaviorist techniques rely on the observation of explicit actions, they are especially applicable to the teaching of gymnastics. There are various methods by which a behavior can be reinforced of which the most efficacious has proved to be positive (praise) rather than negative (punishment) feedback. Positive reinforcement are of two main kinds, extrinsic and intrinsic; verbal encouragement or privileges are common examples of the former, whereas the latter applies to self-motivated students who receive a sense of fulfilment at achieving success. As students requiring the most attention are those who tend to underachieve and are not always self-motivated, our concern will mainly be with extrinsic reinforces as these, when used in the right circumstances, have proved to be advantageous in a number of different ways. An essential aspect of achieving a positive outcome is the breaking down of complex tasks into simpler ones that can be translated into graded steps according to the ability of the student. In this regard, motor skills can be decomposed into a series of simple frames that help to pin-point strengths and weaknesses that can be translated into structured programmes for initiating improvement. Programmed learning of this type allows the trainee to progress at his/her own rate, and permits learning to be facilitated through positive reinforcement of the targeted behavior in that a correct response will be more likely than an incorrect one. Skills can therefore be programmed to advance through structured hierarchies of tasks that progress from the rudimentary to the complex through successive approximation. In a physical education setting, there are special circumstances to take account of when applying these principles. As individuals are inclined to possess a wide variety of abilities, it is essential that the teacher identifies, at the outset, the aptitude of the trainee. This provides the baseline for the programmed learning regime. The targeted motor skills for improvement can then be partitioned into attainable steps. Before proceeding, however, the teacher needs to make sure that the student understands a) instructions and what is expected b) the skill framework c) how the separate skill units relate to the larger task d) how rehearsal relates to the targeted performance. One problem with the teaching of co-ordinated sets of movement skills is that competence occurs only after the actual movements have been practised by the student. Before the trainee attempts the requisite action the teacher must therefore make sure, by actual demonstration of the movement or sub-set of movements involved (d), that success rather than failure will be the outcome. Failure in physically directed routines is more likely to be counterproductive than in other teaching scenarios because the kinaesthetic system that guides visuo-motor skills is closely linked to the arousal/emotional centres of the brain. Negative feedback, especially in underachievers, tends to increase arousal levels causing lack of motivation and under performance. Although verbal instruction has been found to be less effective than actual demonstration in teaching movement skills, nevertheless, from the standpoint of behavior shaping, verbal communication is invaluable. As long as praise appears to be genuine and spontaneous, verbal encouragement immediately after an action has been successfully performed will produce the required sense of satisfaction - leading to a desire for yet further success on the part of the student. The student receives the added bonus in believing that he/she is responsible for some of the improvements arising and is inspired further. A particularly important reinforcer available to the gymnast teacher will be non-verbal communication. This can take the form of gestures that signal success (e.g. "thumbs up") or a simple pat on the back when the occasion arises. Smiles and facial expression add to the range of available non-verbal techniques. Verbal and non-verbal reinforcers can be used together or by themselves to provide various degrees of encouragement according to circumstances. However, encouragement can sometimes be self-defeating, especially when over used and may cause embarrassment to the student and should therefore be used with care and sensitivity. Unskilled students and beginners will require frequent reinforcement than more competent trainees, the latter, due to their already assimilated and integrated learning skills, probably only require the occasional prompt (known as variable interval or variable ratio schedules). As it might take a gymnast student several attempts to assimilate complicated sets of movements, even when this has been broken into simpler tasks, the onus is on the teacher to provide verbal encouragement at the appropriate time by ignoring unsuccessful but reinforcing successful efforts. Through practising a series of movements at a particular level, students can thereby systematically move on to higher levels by, for example, including more complex actions or performing already learned behaviors more rapidly. One great advantage of this method, is that there is much less chance of injury to trainees with the benefit that their confidence is maintained and strengthened. In addition, skills attained through this method have the potential for generalisation to similar kinds of motor activities making the teaching of further tasks more straightforward. Observational Learning. Operant conditioning is probably more suitable to the teaching of single students or small groups with a similar skill base. Observational learning is, however, more appropriate to larger groups because it involves learning skills by either observing and copying the actions of the teacher or the peer group. Observational learning is especially relevant to gymnastics because it is concerned with the demonstration and imitation of a task. Depending on how the abilities of each are rated by the individual learner, he or she may elect either to copy the teacher's role or that of the group. Those unsure of their ability tend to look to peers whereas when the competence of the peer group is in question the teacher tends to be followed. This provides the opportunity for the teacher to play one off against the other thereby maximising learning potential. Observational learning, like operant conditioning, emphasises the importance of making sure that the task is clearly understood by learners, particularly through demonstration, after which the task is immediately copied by the group. Direct reinforcement is also required both from the teacher (in ways already specified) or vicariously through the student's need to compare his/her performance with that of fellow students. By combining the various methods of the two featured learning systems, the gymnast teacher will be capable of achieving better standards and more sustainable results in students while at the same time increasing motivation. References Snowman, J. and Biehler, R. 2003 (10th edit). Psychology Applied to Teaching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Read More