Development of Language and Thinking Skills in Multicultural Classrooms - Assignment Example

Knowledge, understnding nd skills tht techers need to ensure the development of lnguge, litercy nd thinking skills in multilingul nd multiculturl clssrooms. In the following paper I will discuss the issue of builingual education and bilingualism in contemporary education system as well as adress cultural differences among students and subsuquent teaching approaches in builingual classes. I will describe my personal teaching experience and provide the theory related to importance of talking in the class (Vygotsky) and teaching the students of parallel acquisition of the language. I strted studying French in elementry school nd continued through my sophomore yer in college. In my junior yer of college, I switched to Spnish when I relized I would use it more often becuse of the number of Spnish-speking people in Cliforni. fter 21/2 yers of immersing myself in Spnish through study nd trvel to Mexico nd Guteml, I grduted with minor in Spnish. Spnish cme very esily to me becuse of ll the French I hd tken nd my strong desire to lern the lnguge. fter college, I trveled for yer in South meric, where I both reinforced my Spnish nd lso picked up Portuguese while visiting Brzil. When I returned from South meric I ws unsure wht I wnted to do, so I enrolled in bilingul techer eduction progrm sponsored by Title VII. yer of student teching nd bilingul methods courses certified me s bilingul techer. I becme bilingul techer out of my love for Spnish. I see the process of becoming bilingul s lifelong journey, one in which I m still involved. When I strted teching, I hd no ide tht bilingul teching ws so controversil, stigmtized, nd complex. For 6 yers, I struggled s Spnish-English bilingul elementry school techer in Oklnd, Cliforni. Prt of this struggle ws cused by lck of support from my principl nd collegues, who did not understnd the purposes of wht is needed to develop bilingulism. During tht time, I obtined mster's degree in curriculum nd bilingul eduction. t the clssroom level, despite my techer trining nd mster's degree, I still fced dily dilemms such s, "Wht should I do with 30 kids whose lnguge dominnce vries from Spnish to English nd ll the shdes in between" "Wht kind of curriculum should I use for Omr, who hs just come from Mexico to my fourth-grde clss nd doesn't know how to hold pencil becuse he hs never gone to school before" "How do I work with Guillermo, who is very bright, fully bilingul, finishes his work in 2 minutes, nd strts to red the encyclopedi becuse he's bored" "How do I tech my clss with inferior nd inpproprite Spnish mterils nd books" Somehow, I lerned to survive by creting my own mterils nd developing meningful lerning opportunities for students; by individulizing instruction; by hving students help one nother; nd by tking students out into the community nd bringing the community into the clss through trips, projects, nd guests. The effort to do this in n unsupportive environment ws t gret psychic expense tht cused me to burn out. I found myself becoming imptient with the children. I needed chnge. When the chnce cme to move to New York to pursue doctorte in curriculum nd bilingul eduction t Techers College Columbi University, I looked t it s n opportunity to begin to find nswers to these teching questions. From my teaching experience, I can say that second lnguge cquisition cn begin t ny ge nd hence t different levels of brin mturity nd cognitive development. It cn tke plce predominntly in forml lerning or during informl dy-to-dy communiction (depending on socil fctors, the level of cognitive development, nd previous eduction). The ge fctor is closely relted to the method of lnguge lerning due to the difference in the cognitive orgniztion of children's nd dults' lnguge cquisition. In orgnized lerning, for exmple, different types of prctice mteril nd lerning ids exploit different input nd processing modlities (visul, uditory, nd motor). First lnguge cquisition goes "hnd in hnd" with the development of cognitive bilities nd the construction nd elbortion of the child's "picture of the world,' wheres in dult lerning, new lnguge is minly n cquisition of new code for the description of existing concepts, notions, feelings, nming of fmilir objects, nd so forth. Very young children cn cquire second lnguge through exposure, in much the sme wy s they cquired the first lnguge, nd therefore develop blnced bilingulism. For dults, input is necessry but not sufficient, nd they need to mke conscious efforts to mster the second lnguge. If the lnguges re cquired successively rther thn simultneously, it is resonble to expect differences in the neurologicl orgniztion of ech lnguge. First, t the time of cquisition of ech lnguge, the brin is t different stges of mturtion. ccordingly, there re differences in cognitive development. Dynmic locliztion of cognitive processes hs ctully been shown in EEG studies. Excessive generlized recruitment of different corticl res in ny cognitive process--nd especilly in speech--is replced by more distinctly orgnized nd loclized system of functionl ptterns (Frber, Betelev, Dubrovinskj, & Mchinskj, 1998). s Vygotsky (1960) hs shown, it is not only the structure of higher mentl processes tht chnges during ontogeny (the mentl processes become more voluntry nd symboliclly medited) but lso their reltionship to ech other: young child thinks by recollection, wheres n dult perceives nd recollects by reflection. Vygotsky postulated that "social communication is the primary means by which children become aware of their own thinking, behavior processes, and reasoning" (Vygotsky, 1978). "Learning and cognitive development occur through reciprocal, active involvement where children interact with more knowledgeable members of their community who mediate and guide their learning" (Vygotsky, 1987). This learning support system, or scaffold, builds upon the child's current abilities and past experiences " (Hall, 1989). Erly Bilinguls. Given tht two lnguges re cquired simultneously from infncy nd their wys of development nd usge re like, we should be ble to predict with considerble confidence tht the brin zones used for phonemic nlysis will be involved in the processing of both lnguges. Tht is why in countries where erly bilingulism is common phenomenon the most typicl cses of phsiologicl reserch re those in which both lnguges re disordered in similr wys (review in lbert & Obler, 1978). ccording to Buchidze (1987), in cses of Georgin-Russin bilingulism, the frequency of lnguge dissocition in individuls with phsi ws not more then 2%. Neuroimging studies tht included erly bilinguls reported overlpping res of ctivtion for ntive nd second lnguges; however, the systems for lter-lerned lnguges displyed high degree of vribility between individuls. gret del of dt vilble on norml erly versus lte bilinguls hs reveled tht there re no differences in lterl effects (symmetry of rections on lterlized uditory stimuli) in the uditory processing of erly bilinguls. However, there re such differences in lte bilinguls. Lte bilinguls lso demonstrted n inclintion to use different pproches nd strtegies in solving linguistic problems. Even in the cse where two lnguges re cquired simultneously, different ptterns of usge nd/or litercy (lerning to red nd write) re possible, depending on the socioculturl context of eduction. Forml studies my be orgnized in one of the lnguges or in both, simultneously in the two lnguges, or successively. Tht is why perhps the most frequently reported dissocition is in reding nd/or writing (Hinshelwood, 1983; Luri, 1956; Nir & Virmny, 1973), which is often ttributed to lnguge-specific fctors such s different degree of sound-symbol correspondence in orthogrphy. Lymn, Kwn, nd Cho (1983) described cse where grphi nd lexi were more pronounced in the ptient's first lnguge, which ws Chinese, rther thn in his second lnguge, English. The ptient ws ble to spell English words, lthough with some mistkes, which ws impossible with Chinese hieroglyphs, which he tried to trce with his fingers. In Jpnese monolinguls with phsi, dissocition between hieroglyphic nd phonetic orthogrphy often occurs (Prdis, Hgiwr, & Hildebrndt, 1985). Luri (1956) described the cse of French journlist who suffered from lexi in every lnguge he knew (French, Russin, Germn, nd Polish), but grphi, ws the most severe in French nd the lest in Russin. In the ltter, the sound-symbol correspondence is much closer thn in the former, where mny symbols cn combine to mke one sound or re simply not pronounced. Pulesu et l. (2000) used positron emission tomogrphy during reding tsks to revel lnguge-specific differences for Itlin nd English. Phoneme-grpheme correspondence in Itlin ws unequivocl, wheres in English the mpping mong grphemes, phonemes, nd whole-word sounds re essentilly mbiguous. In behviorl studies of unimpired prticipnts, Itlin students displyed fster word nd nonword reding thn did English students. In regrd to ctivted zones, the Itlins showed greter ctivtion in the left superior temporl region, which is ssocited with phoneme processing. In contrst, English reders showed greter ctivtion of posterior inferior temporl gyrus nd nterior inferior frontl gyrus, res ssocited with word retrievl during both reding nd nming tsks. This tells us tht different strtegies of norml reding nd/or writing due to lnguge-specific fctors my result in differentil impirment fter brin dmge. Lte Bilinguls. Severl cses of the better recovery of lnguges lerned lter in ontogeny hve been described. Gelb (1927/1983) suggested tht "seldom-used foreign lnguges my chieve better recovery thn first lnguges becuse of lesser utomtiztion nd greter demnd for reflection". Similr explntions regrding the dvntge for lter nd formlly lerned (nd hence less utomted) lnguges hve been pointed out by Kinz (1960/1983), Smirnov nd Fktorovich (1949/1983), nd Gomez-Tortoz, Mrtin, Gviri, Chrbel, nd usmn (1995). Experiments with lte bilinguls (Kiroy & Kotik, 1985) involved more thn rection to the phonologicl chrcteristics of words. Study prticipnts were required to perform semntic processing, differentiting nmes of nimte nd innimte objects in both lnguges. The results indicted similr ltencies of evoked potentils to both lnguges, fvoring the left temporl lobe. This seems to men tht when stimuli in the two lnguges re used in similr wy, they re processed by the sme mechnism, even in lte bilinguls. It my well be tht some tsks will shre the sme corticl representtions, wheres others my recruit somewht different ptterns of ctivted corticl zones. Recently, Illes et l. (1999), using functionl mgnetic resonnce imging, found tht in fluent lte bilinguls performing tsks demnding semntic decisions there ws evidence for common corticl representtion for both lnguges, in this cse, Spnish nd English. The wy lnguge is cquired determines, to certin extent, the components used in building new functionl system. The wy or method of lnguge lerning determines the dominnt chnnels of input nd hence the pttern of the ctivted cortex res involved in the lnguge processes in the second lnguge. In the three cses of sensory phsi described by Hlpern (1941/1983b), the preferentil recovery of Hebrew over the first lnguges ws ttributed to the fct tht ll three ptients lerned Hebrew in childhood but--in contrst to the cquisition of their first lnguges (Germn, Russin, nd English)--primrily through orl communiction. Hebrew, on the other hnd, ws cquired s literry lnguge from the Bible nd pryer books, tht is, visully. Given the obstruction of the coustic trces of words due to wounds in the left temporl zone--sensory phsi--the lnguge tht ws recovered first ws the one cquired in the visul modlity. This mnner of Hebrew cquisition ws nd still is common for Jews outside of Isrel. It is unique sitution becuse in erly childhood forml lnguge lerning is problemtic nd, most typiclly, erly bilingulism is developed through communiction. The young child lerns the first lnguge through the sense of hering; only lter does the visul element of written lnguge enter into ply. For exmple, in Kotik (1979) study involving Russin nd Estonin, n interhemispheric symmetry (mesured by the right er effect in verbl dichotic listening tests) for word processing in the first nd second lnguges ws observed, relted to the wy the second lnguge ws cquired nd which wy it hd been used. In Russin-Estonin bilinguls the lterl effects in both lnguges were similr, wheres in Estonin-Russin bilinguls the right er effect ws greter for Russin words. Interestingly, the conditions for the second lnguge cquisition in the two groups were different. The Russins cquired nd used Estonin s second lnguge, communicting in nturl lnguge environment. This mens tht ll input modlities were exploited nd the psychologicl structure of the process of lnguge cquisition for both the first nd second lnguges ws similr. On the other hnd, the Estonins lerned Russin minly for cdemic nd instrumentl resons in predominntly forml wy (reding hndbooks, etc.), using it mostly for professionl purposes. Correspondingly, the visul input modlity ws the min one, nd trnsltions were used to improve cquisition. It therefore is resonble to expect tht in erly bilingulism resulting from more or less prllel cquisition of both lnguges, the brin orgniztion will be quite similr. We cn expect differences in phsic syndromes in erly bilinguls only in the cse of significnt linguistic differences between the two lnguges minly with respect to litercy, due to sound-symbol correspondence, the direction of reding, nd so forth. It seems relevnt here to recll tht in 1928 Vygotsky emphsized tht "The problem of bilingulism should be pproched not stticlly, but dynmiclly"(Vygotsky, 1928/1983, p. 334). Second lnguge cquisition is continuous process tht cn sustin or fossilize t different levels of mstery of vrious speech functions. In other words, one person cn be fluent in speech but not in prctice reding, nother cn trnslte complex written texts perfectly but not be orlly fluent, nd the like). Even in dults, there re chnges in the development of skills t different stges of trining tht correlte with functionl chnges in brin mechnisms. The dt regrding chnges in the pttern of interhemispheric coopertion t different stges of mstering new lnguge or lnguge skill re very relevnt. My reserch (Kotik, 1984) hs reveled tht in lte bilinguls (Vietnmese-, French-, nd Spnish-speking students lerning nd using Russin s second lnguge), the pttern of interhemispheric reltions in the processing of stimuli during the cquisition of second lnguge chnges ccording to the stges of bilingul development. t the initil stge of new lnguge cquisition, the lterl effects in the second lnguge enhnced input from the right-hemispheric functions, with prticipnts reporting sound-oriented strtegies in verbl dichotic tsks. t the second stge (2 to 3 yers fter beginning the study of the second lnguge) n ugmented involvement of the left hemisphere ws reflected in incresed right er effect. t this stge, prticipnts reported conscious striving to be exct nd to trnslte words, lthough this ws not demnded of them. t the lter stge (fter bout 5 to 6 yers of intensive study nd use of the new lnguge), the lterl effects in both the first nd the second lnguge were similr. Students reported n immedite understnding of nd bility to reproduce dichoticlly presented words. These findings hve been generlly consistent with the results of other reserchers who hve worked on development of ntive lnguge (Gordon, 1980; Silverberg, Bentin, Gziel, Obler, & lbert, 1979). The study by Silverberg et l. reveled tht there ws shift in lterl effects in tchistoscopic perception of Hebrew words during cquisition of the reding process in ntive Hebrew spekers. This shift ws from n dvntge for stimuli presented in the left visul field in beginners to the right visul field in fluent reders. This mens tht lerning to red in one's first lnguge my ffect the functionl lterl orgniztion of the brin. Similr results were obtined with study prticipnts lerning to red in second lnguge (Bentin, 1981). In the erly stges of lerning to red in new script, the role of the right hemisphere ws more pronounced. This my be prticulr cse of the generl criticl role of the right hemisphere in the initil stges of cquisition of new descriptive system (Goldberg & Cost, 1981). Severl other cognitive studies hve lso indicted tht the orgniztion of the second lnguge chnges during the cquisition process. For exmple, in erly stges of lerning second lnguge, vocbulry items re processed through ssocition with their trnsltion equivlents in the first lnguge, wheres in lter stges of lerning they re more directly concept medited, tht is, ssocited more directly to their mening (Chen, 1990; Dufour & Kroll, 1995) The results of these studies suggest tht first nd second lnguges shre common semntic system s person becomes proficient in new lnguge. Bilingul students spire to enter the workforce but need skills to succeed. In this informtion ge, they need to lern more thn fcts: They need to lern how to solve problems nd think independently. Criticl thinking is n essentil skill for jobs tht require cretivity nd independence. Especilly in teching in English, it is importnt to develop lerning strtegies, thinking skills, nd problem-solving bilities. Becuse mny bilingul students come from school systems or societies tht do not emphsize these skills, they need sensitive teching to djust to the mericn wy of deling with problems. Development of thinking skills should be prt of the instruction regrdless of the ctul or perceived intellectul qulities of the student. Finding Out/Descubrimiento is bilingul (Spnish-English) science nd mth curriculum designed to tech thinking skills rther thn the fcts of science or routine rithmetic opertions. Mth nd science ctivities re orgnized round different themes, such s mesurement, optics, wter, pendulums, nd photogrphy. Students work individully nd coopertively in lbortory setting. It tkes bout 14 weeks to implement the whole curriculum. distinguishing feture of the CLL pproch mentioned erlier is tht in ddition to lnguge nd content, students re tught lerning strtegies, including dvnce preprtion, orgniztionl plnning, selective ttention, resourcing, deduction, elbortion, inferencing, questioning for clrifiction, nd coopertion. While focusing on these strtegies, students lern English, mthemtics, socil studies, or science. progrm tht integrted socil studies nd lnguge teching for middle school bilingul students lso incorported lerning strtegies. Socil studies texts used number of visul ids to ccompny text. Teching middle school bilingul students to interpret timelines, chrts, nd mps fcilitted comprehension of text. nother helpful strtegy involved synthesizing informtion through grphic orgnizers tht highlight importnt concepts nd show hierrchies nd reltionships. The "chievement Vi Individul Determintion" (VID) progrm, designed for low-chieving high school students, hd specil course offered s n elective. This course tught specific cdemic strtegies needed to succeed in college preprtory courses. No skill ws tken for grnted. Techers nd tutors tught note-tking techniques, study skills, the inquiry method, how to work collbortively, nd how to pply ll these skills to the cdemic clsses. Students lerned to use writing s tool for lerning, to become independent thinkers, nd to use their knowledge nd experience s well s their study skills to solve problems ( Mehn et l., 1994). Developing qulity curriculum is complex enterprise becuse of the need to combine content, lnguges, nd cultures. Much reform is needed becuse most existing curricul lck linguistic nd culturl bredth. Innovtions crried out for the benefit of bilingul students would lso benefit ll students. The inclusion of beliefs, knowledge, nd contributions of other cultures would expnd the knowledge of ll students, simultneously mking the curriculum more relevnt for bilingul lerners. Lerning dditionl lnguges through contct with spekers of these lnguges would enhnce foreign lnguge eduction for English spekers. Eductionl chnges require time nd support from eductors nd fmilies. Long-rnge plnning engging eductors, fmilies, nd students cn help ccomplish the gols of curriculr innovtion nd bring schools nd communities together to collborte nd lern from ech other. Curriculum content, of course, often foments ideologicl nd politicl disputes. For the benefit of students, such disputes should be sublimted so tht the focus is on developing individuls--bilingul nd monolingul--cpble of fcing the chllenges of world in which people of different lnguges nd cultures incresingly find themselves working together. Bilingul students need to develop cdemic bility in both their home lnguge nd English. Offering content-bsed lnguge curriculum in both the ntive lnguge nd English is n effective nd meningful wy to tech lnguge nd litercy. This pproch is prticulrly vluble in prepring students to hndle content courses. content-bsed lnguge curriculum covers lnguge development gols through themes drwn from the socil studies, science, nd mth curricul. Lessons include lnguge nd content objectives ( Christin, Spnos, Crndll, Simich-Dudgeon, & Willetts, 1990). Students lso need English s socil lnguge to use in personl interctions with English spekers. Schools should structure settings for developing communictive English through nturl interction with English-speking peers nd techers. School-bsed socil interction with English spekers becomes crucil for students who hve limited contct with English spekers outside school. Girls especilly re often restricted from prticipting in ctivities outside their home or their fmily. Integrted progrms in which bilingul nd Englishspeking students nd techers come together in cdemic nd socil settings provide the idel context for nturl nd functionl development of English mong bilingul students (Smith & Heckmn, 1995). Reserch hs demonstrted the vlue of strong ntive lnguge litercy on the development of litercy in the second lnguge, even when lnguges hve dissimilr writing systems. Positive results hve been found when litercy in the ntive lnguge is introduced first s well s when litercy in both lnguges is introduced simultneously. Immigrnt students who received t lest 2 or 3 yers of home lnguge instruction before immigrting performed better thn immigrnt students who were completely educted in English ( Collier & Thoms, 1989). With Spnish-speking nd Nvjo students completely schooled in the United Sttes, reserch indictes tht strong intensive development of their ntive lnguge for 2 or 3 yers, followed by continuous use of their ntive lnguge fter English is introduced improved cdemic chievement in English nd English lnguge litercy (Thoms & Collier, 1996). Intensive introduction of both lnguges from the very beginning hve lso shown positive results. The issue is not when English is introduced but wht hppens to the ntive lnguge once English is introduced. Snow, Cncino, Gonzlez, nd Shriberg ( 1989) found tht elementry students who cme from homes where English ws not the ntive lnguge performed better in certin lnguge tsks in English when the homes hd mintined the ntive lnguge thn when they hd switched to using English. When the ntive lnguge is neglected (t home, school, or both) it ceses to support second lnguge development, which in turn cn result in lnguge nd litercy problems. Elementry students who fter yer of ntive lnguge instruction received their eduction only in the second lnguge showed difficulties in reding typicl of students with reding problems. Moreover, Beebe nd Giles ( 1984) found tht if lerning lnguge is perceived s requiring the neglect of one's own lnguge nd culturl group, it becomes difficult to cquire the second lnguge to high level of proficiency. Therefore, when the ntive lnguge is strong nd encourged, it fcilittes cdemic chievement nd English lnguge nd litercy development. Even students eqully wek in both lnguges benefit from intensive instruction in their home lnguge. Bilingul students benefit the most when they receive long-term instruction in both lnguges (Collier, 1992). Reserch mong junior high school students showed tht the more yers they hd ttended bilingul eduction progrms, the better students performed in school nd the lower the dropout rte. Progrms for young students introduce L2 litercy fter first lnguge litercy hs been cquired or strt students in both lnguges simultneously. For exmple, in Rock Point, students were tught to red first in Nvjo, relying on loclly developed mterils nd methods. In the second grde, students were introduced to reding in English: "We did not replce reding in Nvjo; we dded reding in English. Therefter, students were expected to red nd write in both lnguges" ( Holm & Holm, 1990, p. 177). Two-wy schools tht emphsize development of both lnguges for number of yers introduce litercy in both lnguges t n erly ge. In the migos Progrm in Cmbridge, Msschusetts, ntive spekers of Spnish nd English spend hlf of their time in Spnish instruction nd hlf of their time in English instruction. Litercy is introduced in both lnguges in kindergrten. Yu-Ln, Chinese bilingul first-grde techer, introduced litercy in both lnguges simultneously becuse she felt students did not confuse the English lphbet nd Chinese chrcters. Students with low levels of lnguge proficiency in both lnguges benefit from bilingul pproch, contrry to the common belief tht they re best served by English-only progrms. These students seem to benefit from using their whole linguistic repertoire rther thn being restricted to just one wek lnguge. In n elementry bilingul progrm in rizon tht emphsized Spnish initilly, slowly incresing English instruction, low-proficiency bilingul students "cquired significnt knowledge of English while being exposed to lrge mounts of English nd Spnish ( Medin & Escmill, 1992, p. 264). Introduction of litercy in English to older students depends on their level of litercy in the home lnguge. Students fully literte in their home lnguge cn be promptly introduced to litercy in English, but students with limited or no litercy in their ntive lnguge fce dilemm. They benefit from instruction in the ntive lnguge, but they feel gret urgency to develop English litercy. Such students cn benefit from bilingul pproch where ll their linguistic resources re used to develop litercy. Morn, Tinjero, Stobbe, nd Tinjero ( 1993) recommended number of strtegies for educting the older student with limited schooling. Bsed on their long-term experience, rther thn empiricl reserch, they recommended number of strtegies. They underscored the importnce of using the ntive lnguge nd students' personl experience s the foundtion to introduce students to the new experience of schooling in different lnguge nd culture. The lnguge curricul for the ntive lnguge nd English should be integrted. Speking, listening, reding, nd writing re tught in reltion to one nother nd not s seprte skills. The different components of lnguge such s pronuncition, spelling, grmmr, discourse, nd text structures re tught in context rther thn s isolted components. Students discuss, red, nd write bout subject. spects of the lnguge tht cuse problems or tht re needed by students to express themselves re tught. There is no seprte time for reding, writing, or speking; they re ll prcticed together to reinforce ech other. Developing qulity curriculum is complex enterprise becuse of the need to combine content, lnguges, nd cultures. Much reform is needed becuse most existing curricul lck linguistic nd culturl bredth. Innovtions crried out for the benefit of bilingul students would lso benefit ll students. The inclusion of beliefs, knowledge, nd contributions of other cultures would expnd the knowledge of ll students, simultneously mking the curriculum more relevnt for bilingul lerners. Lerning dditionl lnguges through contct with spekers of these lnguges would enhnce foreign lnguge eduction for English spekers. Eductionl chnges require time nd support from eductors nd fmilies. Long-rnge plnning engging eductors, fmilies, nd students cn help ccomplish the gols of curriculr innovtion nd bring schools nd communities together to collborte nd lern from ech other. Curriculum content, of course, often foments ideologicl nd politicl disputes. For the benefit of students, such disputes should be sublimted so tht the focus is on developing individuls--bilingul nd monolingul--cpble of fcing the chllenges of world in which people of different lnguges nd cultures incresingly find themselves working together. Bibliogrphy: 1. lbert, M., & Obler, L. (1978). The bilingul brin. New York: cdemic Press. 2. Bnich, M., Elledge, V., & Stolr, N. (1992). Vritions in lterlized processing mong right hnders. Cortex, 28, 273-288. 3. Beumont, J. G., Young, . W., & McMnus, I. C. (1984). 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