African Caribbean Community - Assignment Example

African Caribbean Community Perceived Learning Difficulties Amongst the African Caribbean Race -UK Bhuvana Jaiganesh The British African Caribbeans The colonial era of the United Kingdom essentially made the country a focal point for immigration by people from all over the world seeking entry into the western world. While the earliest black settlers in the UK were entertainers to the Royal families. Later the slave trade swelled their numbers that reached 14000 by the 1700s. By 1807 slave trade was banned and by 1833 slavery was banned all across the UK. Shortage of labour in UK after the Second World War prompted the Government to encourage immigration. June 22nd 1948 was a red letter for the British Empire. Hundreds of working hands were brought in from the West Indies to fill the labour shortages and this day marked the beginning of the arrival of a mass of people from different cultures into Britain. In 1945 the minority population numbered in the low thousands and rose to 1.4 million in the 70's.The census report published in 2003, claims that minority ethnic groups account for 6.7% of the British population. Of the 4 million ethnic minority people living in Britain, African Caribbeans number 500,00 and are the second largest population among the minorities.(http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/short_history_of_immigration.stm; Peach C) The "under achievement," pattern While on the one hand Britain needed the labour for industry and people were lured in by employment in the land, "they were been brought up to revere," social, political and economic discrimination was an unexpected tragedy for the immigrants. African Caribbeans in Britain have found to be underachievers in the field of education in Britain. While statistics to prove these facts are methodically taken, scientific and sociological studies prove that this disturbing trend is not due to any innate faulty biological mechanism rather the inability of the British system to offer this ethnic group the optimal conditions for cognitive growth. Statistical facts African Caribbean children are found to exhibit a skewed learning behaviour. "Baseline'" testing of five year olds show their performance to be at par with other groups. However, by secondary school stage, "African-Caribbean pupils are between three and six times more likely to be expelled from school." The success rate in the GCSE examinations (2000) for black students was 37% compared to 50% for white students and 49% for Asians. "Out of over 22,000 British students who achieved AAA at A-Level in 2002 and entered higher education, only 37 were black." "For every young black Caribbean male at university in Britain, there are two in prison." While the black community in Britain did show upward trends in qualification levels (38.8 in 2001 compared to the national average of 19.8%), Caribbeans by contrast continue to be the least qualified ethnic group.(Anjool. 2005) The OFSTED report 1991 warns that the gaps between academic performance between African Caribbeans and the white population would widen in the next 20 years. While describing the group's potential the guardian asserts that "Black Caribbean children have an equal, if not higher, ability than white children, yet Black Caribbean boys make the least progress through school." This is attributed to the fact that Caribbeans live in the most deprived 10% wards in England. Discrimination: General prejudice Indirect evidence from the British Social Attitude survey suggests that Britons show equal discriminate against all ethnic minorities. However, Personal surveys indicate that Caribbeans perceive a higher level of discrimination especially in the job market. This may be because there is a general prejudice in the manual labour market and African Caribbeans being normally less qualified are usually a part of the manual labour force. African Caribbeans were also found by British Crime surveys to be having a greater risk of becoming victims to crime.(Heath F A, Mcmohan D.2000-01) The alienation experienced by African Caribbeans was particularly harsh on the community, as it has been found that Caribbeans tried to assimilate into the British culture unlike the Asians who sought only to have economic connections, (2000, Maharaja). In fact they are the race that have acquired better communication skills in the English language compared to other ethnic groups (BBC). Housing Ethnic minorities are given the worst housing facilities in terms of quality, facilities, size and locality. Poor housing is shown to have a direct effect on physical and mental well-being. 52% of Caribbean Blacks in Britain relied on public housing (the highest among minorities). The level of ownership among Caribbean households has increased from 40% to 48% due to their participation in the Right to buy policy (Ratcliffe, 1997). A recent survey by Ratcliff highlighted overcrowding as the major housing problem among minority communities. Another study (Ratcliff 1997) showed that the quality houses owned by the ethnic minority were inferior and many lacked the resources to improve or maintain their property. Black and Asian minorities owned 35% of the worst houses. 51% of the homeless were from minority communities and a quarter of them were of African black origin.(Stonethrow.co.uk) Labour Economic differences account for much of the perils of the African Caribbean (AC) race in Britain. In general the household income among ethnic minority groups is at least 20% lower than the white majority. Labour surveys reveal that almost 17% of ACs were unemployed (2000) and found some of the largest wage gaps compared to the majority community. The self- employment trends were also the lowest compared to other ethnic minorities in the UK (7% for men and 2% for women). (Cabinet Office, 2003; Heath F A, Mcmohan D.2000-01) Education Discrimination in the educational front can probably be best quantified by the exclusion statistics of school going children in this group. "In 2000/01, 38 in every 10,000 Black Caribbean pupils in England were permanently excluded. This was the highest rate for any ethnic minority group." ( http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/educational_achievement.stm ) Exclusion Statistics for African Caribbean students (permanent exclusions) 1997 - 0.78 percent 2001/02 - 0.4 per cent (0.13% for whites in the same period) 2002/03- 0.25 (0.12 for white children) "Hence, despite the improvement, African-Caribbean children are still substantially more likely to be excluded," (Government papers. 2005). In probing into the reasons for school exclusion among AC children, Wright C, Standen P and others found that pupils perceived unfair treatment meted out to them at school to be the overriding reason for dropping out of the system. They felt that their white counterparts were judged more leniently for identical mistakes. This undermined self-worth and prompted them to seek an identity away from the system and the negative stereotype created by it. The IQ tests IQ tests to estimate metal potential were designed by French psychologists Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon and in their own admission defined their measure as, "stuff learned in a particular culture, at a particular time." Later research by cultural psychologist Michael Cole disputes the test's universal cross-cultural applicability to assess mental potential and says that the original authors were also trying only to find the brain "adaptability," to various environmental stimuli and suggest that, " the Binet-Simon tests are useful merely for telling us who has absorbed more of what the local culture demands that people learn, and who has absorbed less. Nothing more." In fact the original proponents themselves claim that the tests were "only a reference point." The have found the IQs of children from wealthy families with better circumstances for intellectual growth higher that children from less fortunate ones or from rural areas where the exposure is less. The same applies to children who grow up in different countries and cultures different from their own. The scientific basis to this theory is quoted in a chat site. The author cites a French paper and explains, "Between 1976 and 1982 an IQ study was made in 100 black kids adopted by white families with studies and IQ over the average. In the tests realized during their childhood they had IQ's over the average of the rest of the Afroamerican infant population, in the adolescence this difference remained, the adopted kids kept showing the beneficial effects of the environments they grown up while teenagers." (http://www.asatlas.org/salud/CI_adopcion.pdf taken from http://www.stormfront.org/forum/showthread.phpp=2497316 ) This IQ testing model was adopted by Britain by Cyril Burt as early as 1913 and initially applied the test on suspected retarded children (for whom the tests were not intended). As expected, the prep school children and children did better, which led Burt to conclude that a genetic component and not training or its methods that dictated IQ and the idea was embraced by the entire intelligence movement. The IQ tests of the 60s showed African Caribbeans to have an average IQ of 85 and showed whites to score 100. This has sparked legitimate controversies questioning the ethics of such tests that unfairly assert superior intelligence to the aristocracy/affluent and the white majority The IQ tests were thus believed by many to be a pseudo scientific tag in an attempt to preserve segregation. (http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrchap6.htm ) Revelations of Bernard Coard These scientifically biased IQ tests often erroneously labelled AC children to be learning impaired and were sent to study in schools for the "Educationally Subnormal." In the normal schools 17% of children were from ethnic minority communities and in ESN schools the figure was 34%. Conrad also found that 4 out of 5 children in ESN schools were from the West Indies. This was mentally devastating on these children who were groping to adapt to a totally new social order. They experienced various other emotional disturbances in addition to adjustments needed in a new culture. The racist policies, curriculum, low teacher expectations, discrimination, low economic status, poor housing made a devastating impact on the black children in Britain. Conrad Identified 3 main reasons for failure: Low expectations and faith in their abilities. Low teacher expectations Low motivation to succeed academically The ESN schools were used indiscriminately for segregating ACs from other students. Thus the British Education System failed to address the needs of African Caribbean children. Although the ESN schools were eventually closed down, the discrimination continues. The children of this group get frustrated owing to the unfair practices by educational authorities and get increasingly difficult to handle. They are soon labelled as unfit for mainstream education and are promptly excluded. Britain has over the years tried hard to enact laws and set up committees to bring about educational equality. But the end of the tunnel is yet to come. Education Laws in Britain Education Act- 1944 The Education Act introduced by R A Butler in 1944 made education compulsory until age 15, regardless of class or ethnicity. This was a landmark act for Britain in many ways but more so for the ethnic minorities, who were included in the state's free educational policy. However, the,"tripatriate system," where the basis for admission into secondary schooling was the 11plus system remained much to be desired for ethnic minorities. The Local Education Authority (LEA), administered the tests and resulted in the best "academically able," going to Grammar schools, the "least Academically able", qualifying for Modern schools and the hands on technical education was given to those who did not qualify. This system was entirely pro-majority as it tested skills present among the elite and middle class Britons. The schools were also under pressure to set curriculum and prepare students to excel this milestone. A child centred, creative teaching was therefore forfeited. This was to the greatest detriment of the African Caribbeans who needed a different system of teaching for academic excellence. The GEC exams introduced in 1951, generally allowed only Grammar School pupils to compete. 1960s- Comprehensive school system The issues related to Multi-cultural education in Britain came to the forefront in 1958 after the Notting Hill riots. The Government's answer to the upraising is to adopt a policy of assimilation along with physical dispersal of immigrants, which increased the turmoil (AMA, 1987). Between 1960-65 the Government had not framed any central policies to meet the needs of ethnic minorities. Education was targeted, "Teaching English to immigrant children, the dispersal of immigrant pupils and prevent high immigrant schools." " It was believed that assimilation into British life would be easier if the numbers of 'immigrant' children in schools were kept small." However the LEA over ruled this in 1975. The multiethnic education policy statement-1977 The statement was intended to give equal opportunities to all regardless of gender, class or ethnicity. This was also the period when major concerns developed over the falling standards in education especially among students belonging to ethnic minority in general and African Caribbeans in particular. The Bullock Report for the first time recognised and acknowledged the multicultural composition of the country and the need for tailoring education to fit the needs of children in all groups. There was a call for cultural, ethnic and linguistic integration of curriculum. Education reform Act 1988 The Act introduced the open enrolment system and allowed children to attend schools chosen by their parents. The Act also enforced that schools maintained standards stipulated in the National Curriculum. The Act also formally reaffirmed that the basic ethos of the education should be based on Christian values. Such principle ignored the traditions of a multicultural society and created hostility. Special Education Code of Practice The education Act of 1993 vested a duty on the Secretary of State to issue a "Code of Practice." The codes were essentially meant to address Special Educational Needs (SEN) of children. The first code came into existence in 1994. and a revised code was later framed in 2000 and enforced on 2002. The code says that LEAs, health and social welfare organisation are bound by law to assist children with special educational needs. However, the code only offer guidelines for decision making but does not spell out the methods to be adopted for each individual case. The following are the salient features of the code: "A stronger right for children with SEN to be educated at a mainstream school" "New duties on LEAs to arrange for parents of children with SEN to be provided with services offering advice and information and a means of resolving disputes." "A new duty on schools and relevant nursery education providers to tell parents when they are making special educational provision for their child." "A new right for schools and relevant nursery education providers to request a statutory assessment of a child." Reports to evaluate policy performance Warnock report- 1978 The Warnock report was created in 1978 and was drafted and the study recognised the need for special education for students with learning difficulties. Assessment procedures to identify such children were introduced. These were the guideline under which the LEA screened for children with special learning needs. Following this the special education Acts of 1981 and 1993 were enacted. The Rampton report 1981 The Labour Government initiated an enquiry on the underachievement of African Caribbean children in Britain in the year 1977. The Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration addressed the issue. The interim report (Rampton report) concluded that the under achievement was largely due to racism, inadequate pre-school provisions, low minority teacher ratios, language issues, teacher perceptions and attitudes, segregation and social inequalities. Swann Report - 1985 Basically the report reaffirmed the findings of the Rampton report. "We believe that unless major efforts are made to reconcile the concerns and aspirations of both the majority and minority communities along more genuinely pluralistic lines, there is a real risk of the fragmentation of our society along ethnic lines which would seriously threaten the stability and cohesion of society as a whole." (p.7). The report claimed that much of the differences in performance between Caribbean children and white children were due to socio economic factors which were aggravated by prejudice and discrimination. The report claimed that the problem had many facets and urged for change in the examination system, curriculum and teacher attitudes and dissuade stereotyping. Learning difficulties- a label Scientific studies have underlined the biological basis for learning difficulties to be due to genetic predisposition (80-90% of identical twins have ADHD), brain trauma during birth (hypoxia), brain injuries before or during birth, child's temperament. (Links from www.mental health.org.uk). There are no physiological markers for learning difficulties; the assessment tools used by the system are more applicable to the white majority population. Every culture has a different reference for abnormal behaviour. For instance the white majority find the conduct of African Caribbean boys offensive in the school environment. They are often overly disciplined or may even be expelled. However, Jamaica's Education Minister Senator Burchell Whiteman explains, "Caribbean males are showmen and boys are assertive, but that is because they are playing out their masculinity - it does not always mean they are being rude." So branding a perceived aggressive behaviour as a learning difficulty may be erroneous. Anjool(2005) notes that while segregation may have negative connotations for the ethnic minorities, the practice is not without merit. Segregation in housing for example may be a positive intervention to bring communities closer with shared language, culture, food and tradition. "Socio-economic factors account for only 8% of the observed segregation," suggesting a cultural strategy by the group. Segregation is thought of as a minor factor in explaining academic underperformance by African Caribbean. However, Kreppner J, Connor M and Rutter M found the symptoms and development of learning difficulties among high risk children is greater in socially deprived settings (2001). In addition poor socio economic conditions make it impossible to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Consequently chronic illnesses are common among the minorities and to accentuate the situation, the group also has insufficient/inadequate access to health services. Factors promoting underachievement Low teacher representation Research has highlighted the a disproportionate amount of discord between teachers and African Caribbean students and that teachers "are more likely," to feel hostile towards this group. These findings indicate the need for teachers from the African Caribbean community who will understand the nuances of their behaviour especially the boy child. In 2003, it was found that 2.9 percent of London teachers were Black and the proportion of black students was 19.69 Six times greater). The proportion of students from all minority groups was 43.5% and minority teachers were 7.4%. Discrimination has been documented in the professional development for teachers from minority communities. Professor Alister Ross studied 22 local educational authorities and found that white teachers were being promoted faster and more often in the hierarchy. The study showed, "nearly 21% of white teachers with 15 years experience had become head or deputy head teachers, while only 11.8% of black teachers and 13.5% of Asian teachers had been promoted to the top positions. Moneterism The term denotes an economic theory that was introduced in the 70's. It had a wide-ranging impact on all economic sectors including the education sector. It gave rise to a view in UK that individual schools needed to take care of their financial health. This essentially made teachers and administrators in schools adopt a commercial method of drafting policies. Although it gives more freedom to schools in matters of responding to local needs, it also compels them to model policies in accordance to popular ideals. Thus the schools started designing curriculum content and standards to cater to success of students in the public examinations. This often ignores the unique needs of specific ethnic groups. The African Caribbean community seems to be the worst casualty of this system as it did not allow teachers and policy makers to creatively address their "differentially abled" learning capacities. Absence of role models The shortage of African Caribbean adults who have excelled through education has created a vacuum for the young aspirant. Most Caribbean Britons excel in sports and music. The perception is that such fields do not require the rigorous discipline required to excel in academics. The very low percentage of teachers from the community also adds to this problem. A "father figure," is often absent in their family structure, compounding the woes of the male child for they seem to need a father to emulate. Their absence often makes them turn towards celebrity role models whom they understand only through the glossy eyes of the media. This further erodes their commitment to pursue an academic career. Family Structure The academic success of Asian minorities like Indians and Chinese has been to a large part attributed to a very solid family structure. The family structure of the African Caribbean minority is often compramised. The African Caribbean family structure falls predominantly into three categories: Unmarried mothers (65%). The Catholics from the Dominica however, live with their others and relatives to avoid social stigmatization. The co-habitation group, which does not guarantee the presence of the male figure at all periods in the child's development. The nuclear family as understood by the white majority cannot exist in this situation. The nuclear family structure akin to other cultures. Here there is a difference in the way the child is reared. The rules of the household have been found to be either very overbearing or strict or extremely permissive. These differences from others are an important reason for mental unrest among children and this permeates into their educational performance. Curriculum The Birmingham report compiled by the Birmingham advisory Service is the first in the country to make a detailed study of minority interests in education in Britain. The report says that one of the factors underlying minority under achievement may be a "racist curriculum." The curriculum does not offer enough role models for emulation. The report recommends the introduction of history and cultural studies that a more akin with minority groups. Institutional Racism Lack of understanding of behavioural differences in children from various groups, prompts teachers to take a harsher view of minority children. The teachers have no concept of their earning methodologies and therefore have low expectations. The Swann report suggests that the African Caribbeans unlike their Asian counterparts "adopt a high profile." This may be viewed as aggressive behaviour and punished more severely. Such misunderstanding lead to clashes and exclusions effectively removing the child from mainstream education. Such acts are viewed as discriminatory and demoting to the group. Research has shown that relations between white teaches and black students are strained. The resultant conflicts makes white teachers single these students out for criticism and although committed to equality, white teachers are found to respond to have a negative attitude. Discouraging inequalities "Despite a greater proportion of black Africans having higher qualifications, 13% of those with a postgraduate degree and 14% of graduates were unemployed in 1991 (OCPS, Crown Copyright 1992), and a decade later 13.3% of the economically active are unemployed compared with 5.0% overall (ONS, Crown Copyright 2003)." The above statistics underline a real discrimination in the job market. The discrimination leads to a resigned carelessness towards education. Young people are instilled to make a choice against education as the hard work put in may or may not be recognized by the industry ad translate into meaningful jobs. Identity issues The best assimilation of British culture among minorities is found in the AC community. Unlike other Asian minorities, they do not have a communication problem. Despite the efforts made by the group to integrate with the culture they are often viewed as "impoverished" versions of the British culture, which is a severe deterrent to intellectual development. Besides, they have often cast away their original ethnic identities feel threatened as they are ignored or controlled by the existing system. This leads to crafting their own identities, which leads to development of ideals of lives diametrically opposite to the ones held dear by the white majority.(Maharaja. 2000) Teaching methods Inability to cope with the curricular needs can lead to serious behavioural problems and poor performance. Teaching methods are not geared towards the learning behaviour of the child. The learning may be non-traditional and creative teaching methods can offer a solution. Problems unique to the AC boy child In the absence of a good role model, "there has emerged a black sub-culture that embraces, "homophobia" and " misogyny and rejects academia." Anjool enumerates the woes of the AC male in education: A sense of powerlessness created by the white majority prompts feelings of hostility. In an attempt to gain power (masculinity) they create a "macho image," which is not contusive to academic pursuits. This image is important for children in school, however, these children are highly insecure. The loss of identity and access to their roots make them feel cut-off from the "patriarchal ideals." In this framework (phallocentric) created by them, there is little importance attached to success through employment. Hence there is no motivation to study. They are ashamed of their slavish past and therefore reject this identity. They do not want to learn because they do not want to be taught by white teachers. Many believe that Caribbean boys have, "skills of the body, rather than skills of the mind." Absence of a male role model in the family structure (in most cases). An overview of child rearing in Jamaica suggests that boys are brought up with more freedom than girls. These facts are not understood by the system. Their method of communication is not understood. The Education minister of Jamaica admits that Caribbean boys are harder to control but they are not wicked but different. The aggressive demeanor is more noticeable and hence more often singled out for criticism. This fosters a low self-esteem, lowers ambition and reduces motivation. Addressing Special Education Needs (SEN) Every child has the right to education and the system will have to adapt to its special needs. As seen in the reports several policies have been framed by UK to address these issues. The problems related to dealing with the AC minority and SEN are complex. Exclusion of students from the mainstream costs the country 48 million pounds per year and the AC group of children experience the highest exclusion rates. It is evident that the system provided by the British is not contusive to adaptation and intellectual growth for the African Caribbean. The system has to understand and embrace the social and cultural differences besides redefining academic structure and teaching methods to fit their needs. Therefore measures are to be taken to address the inequality at all levels. David Hopkin's, Head of DfES's standard and effectiveness Unit said, "Research by the OECD is suggesting, for the first time, that the right combination of strategies and policies can begin to address poverty and social class as determinants of educational performance." Some of the recommendations of the committee are Reducing the inequalities in income and offering access to education early in life can to a large extent bridge the gap. Allocate more funding to schools in poorer areas. Under the new funding policy (2003) increased funding has been allocated. However, resource is not reaching deprived areas as fast as it needs to. Design targeted programmes to reduce exclusions and under achievement. Identify and support every child in a short time frame. This will avoid them slipping further behind their peers. Include the family and community into the programme. Exclusion citing conduct of the pupil may be subjected to review. When expelled from a school in a cluster, the other schools in the cluster can be supportive to the child. This will ensure discipline and foster hope in the child. Poverty is not merely about income but about access to services provided by the state. Educating parents about early education, special Education Needs and their rights to these. The DFES however stated some "key facts," that belie the supposed policies "The existence of a flourishing private school system in England, educating 7% of children in smaller classes, with higher capitation rates per pupil, better paid teachers and selective admissions, remains one of the factors maintaining educational inequalities." "A socio-economic attainment gap is evident as early as 22 months and widens as a child gets older." "The national average scores rose from 63% in 1997 to 77% in 2001. In the poorest areas, the scores rose from 42% in 1997 to 63% in 2001." When aid to private institutions was withdrawn, it promote admission of students from the deprived communities, it resulted in "reduced educational outcomes" with ACs. Young people from wealthier backgrounds are 5 times more likely to take up higher education. The early start, which is so crucial to child development, is also not accessible to poorer children. This is because of the parents' access to transport and other facilities and ignorance of parents themselves on the importance of beginning young. Lessons learnt Ofsted reviewed the methodologies of nine schools that were successful in raising the level achievement among African Caribbean students. They picked six schools where the percentage of Caribbean students was between 10% and 33%. The reasons that contributed to their success was enumerated to be: Fostering a "culture of achievement." Good leadership and clear policies Positive response from the Caribbean students to rise up to expectations. High expectations from all pupils regardless of ethnicity. Teachers who cherished students and invested their time. The teachers did not merely enforce rules but lead by example. They stayed after school for many personality-building activities and kept a close watch on their pupils. In general, the schools had a good rapport with parents and caregivers. The parents felt positive about the school and confident in the schools ability to help their children. The schools provided supportive environment and this helped counter the pressures from street culture for the deprived lot. The teachers and the management were informed about differences among ethnic minority students and handled them sensitively. Excursions to centres of culture and art were undertaken on a regular basis. The report says: "The secondary report says: "The six schools provide, from their varying contexts and histories, positive messages about what can be done not only for Black Caribbean youngsters but also for other groups, including white youngsters, at risk of under-achievement." It is heartening to find such positive trends in society giving reason hope for a bright future for the African Caribbeans in Britain . Refrences 1. Maharaja D Hari. (2000) Afro-Saxon psychosis or cultural schizophrenia in African-Caribbeans Psychiatric Bulletin (2000) 24: 96-97 2. United Kingdom. Cabinet Office. (2003)Ethnic Minorities and the Labour Market. London. Government Printer. 3. Anthony F. Heath and Dorren McMahon. 2000-01. Ethnic Differences in the Labour Market: The Role of Education and Social Class Origins. Sociology Working Papers 4. (2002) Ethnicity and Housing.[Electronic Document] URL http://www.stonethrow.co.uk/information/factsheets/ethnicicityandhousing.asp 5. Maharaja D Hari (2000) Psychiatr Bull.2000; 24: 83-120 6. BBC. (2004)More Black teachers are needed. 7th Sept. 2004 [URL] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3633026.stm 7. United Kingdom. Buckinghamshire County Council.(2005) Report on Provision for Pupils At Risk of Exclusion in Buckinghamshire. London. Governement. 8. Malde,Anjool(2005) Is it 'cos I is Black, Sir" -African/Caribbean Males & Higher Education (dissertation) (Electronic Document)[URL] http://www.anjool.co.uk/dissertation.pdf 9. Francisco Gil-White (2004) Resurrecting Racism: The modern attack on black people using phony science.(Electronic Document)[URL] http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrcontents.htm 10. Stromfront.org. (2006) A link from a chat site. (http://www.asatlas.org/salud/CI_adopcion.pdf taken from http://www.stormfront.org/forum/showthread.phpp=2497316 Read More