Doing Critical Management - Assignment Example

Part A Introduction A Dissertation is a cumulative effort representative of the entirety of the educational experience. The importance of adissertation in the educational experience of a student can never be underestimated. A dissertation should report the empirical conclusion of a study as well as provide an over view of current literature and current findings on the subject. It should interpret these facts based on a comparative reading of the sources relative to the experimental outcome. The descriptive study must analyse the "trends in attitudes, events, and facts in terms of their commonality and potential for prediction" (Smith, 1997, p. 34), In this dissertation, ontological and epistemological assumptions will be discussed in relation to positivist and interpretivist approaches to business research. Moreover, two methods of collecting and analyzing qualitative data will be critically compared and contrasted. Part B : Ontological belief and epistemological assumptions are always expected to be at complete dissention with each other and influence the positivist and interpretivist approaches to business research. Ontology is the department of metaphysics concerned with the nature of being. Ontological assumptions will therefore be completely influenced by faith. Such assumptions quite naturally form the basis of positivism and positivist approaches to business research. Positivism is the philosophical system recognizing only positive facts and observable phenomena. It naturally accepts. Epistemology is the theory of knowledge or grounds of knowledge. Thus, epistemological assumptions form the basis of interpretivist approach to business research. Epistemological assumptions will challenge every ontological belief and will want to question every positivist approach of business research. While ontological assumptions will naturally believe in the goodness of a product or process, epistemological assumptions will want to interpret every aspect of the same. Ontological assumptions will not question the theoretical basis of a concept or a product or even a research process. The basis of such assumptions is good faith or a simple faith in the goodness of the product per say, based on face value or usage. This represents a microcosm of ontological assumptions. People tend to assume a certain fact to be true just good or proper. It can be so either by means of rote' or by way of peer pressure. Large scale acceptance of a certain product or concept or idea will influence this acceptance aspect of business research. There is no theory attached to a wide spread acceptance - just the mere fact of acceptance. Epistemological assumptions will want to get to the bottom of the matter and will raise questions about the theoretical basis of the assumption. Epistemological assumptions begin with an inherent suspicion of the knowledge basis of the concept or product. They want to understand and interpret everything in a framework of methodology Conventional science is based on 'rational positivist' thought. This includes the presumptions that there is a 'real world'. Data can be gathered by observing it This data is factual. It is truthful and unambiguous. The 'post-positivist', 'interpretivist' philosophy, on the other hand, asserts that these assumptions are unwarranted, According to this philosophy 'facts' and 'truth' are a wild supposition and 'objective' observation is impossible, and that the act of observation-and- interpretation is dependent on the perspective adopted by the observer. Interpretivists criticise even the physical scientists for the narrowness of their assumptions. Their criticisms hold some truth particularly strongly in the social sciences, where the objects of study are influenced by so many factors. These factors are extremely difficult to isolate and control in experimental laboratory settings. The interpretivist approach confronts the difficulties presented by the nature of the research domain, and in particular: the intangibility of many of the factors and relationships; the inherent involvement of the researcher within the research domain; the dependence of outcomes on the researcher's perspective of: the selection and definition of the research domain; the selection and rendition of existing theory; the definition of the research question; the design of the research framework; the selection, definition and operationalisation of variables; and the measurement of variables. This builds up to a requirement that multiple interpretations of the same phenomena must be allowed for, and that no truth is attainable. In preparing a dissertation for business research both ontological and epistemological assumptions have to be kept in mind. One has to remember the underlying force of the positivist approach is the ontological assumptions and the underlying force of the interpretivist approach is the epistemological assumptions. The ontological assumptions allows for good faith and an inherent feeling of all goodness. This is the inherent attitude of the positivist approach to business research. Everything is natural and need not be questioned. The epistemological assumption questions the basic nature of being. It follows a methodology which is based on knowledge and the advocates the interpretivist approach to business research. It questions the basis of the feeling of faith and of goodness. It questions the very roots of being. It is diametrically opposite to the ontological assumption. The ontological assumption is more akin to traditional and religious beliefs about the ways of the world which naturally also includes business research. This assumption is guided by the positivist approach which does not question the nature of being. According to this assumption everything is as it is, as it was meant to be. It does not need to be questioned. The epistemological assumption is guided by the interpretivist approach questions everything around. If it is, why is it, how is it Their answers are sought in the framework of methodology to build up the knowledge base of everything. Several concepts operate on either or both these assumptions. Although both concepts are completely diverse in nature, any business research more often than not employs both these concepts. Any idea or research or product or concept can be approached by the positivist attitude which forms the basis of ontological belief or an interpetivist attitude which forms the basis of epistemological approach. It is like two ways of looking at a coin. The positivist approach is guided by the ontological assumption that everything is natural and good and therefore cannot or should not be questioned. The interpretivist approach is guided by the Epistemological assumption which measures the truth of everything in its own methodology and clarifies the knowledge content of the research, idea or product or concept. A case in point will somewhat illustrate the two approaches on a more realistic level. Every household has to procure cooking oil irrespective of a particular brand. The two approaches will influence the decision to purchase in two different ways. The ontological assumption will preclude any adverse or derogatory remarks or opinion on a particular brand and simply urge the buyer to purchase any cooking oil that he or she may come across. This mode of purchase will depend solely on how many buyers across the board lift this particular brand in plain view of the buyer. Or better still just the fact that it is cooking oil will spur the purchase. Therefore what is paramount here is the fact that it is simply cooking oil and it has to be good because the people normally accept cooking oil to be good. This will be the underlying guiding force of the positivist approach which is the basis of ontological assumption. The epistemological assumption will incite the buyer to ask self explanatory questions as to why brand A and not Brand B, what governs the brand recall, or brand goodwill influence a particular purchase. They will naturally question the company, its standing in the corporate world. They will also want to get to the bottom of the processes through which the product has evolved, quality control mechanisms, the good will and brand value of the particular product and of course the pricing. Moreover, point of sales and point of purchase visuals that stare into the face of the buyer have a large role to play in the decisive area. So do freebies and all exchange vouchers. Consequently, all these answers will have to be on the positive side before epistemological assumptions are put into practice to influence the purchase. This will be the guiding force of the interpretivist approach which forms the basis of the epistemological assumption. Another example will help make the picture clearer. An organization which depends solely on ontological beliefs has to at some point embrace epistemological assumptions to survive. So it sells faith' - the very basis of the philosophy of being. Evangelistical literature or material is published and marketed to influence people of ontological belief into their way of life. Since ontological assumption is based on positivism, the belief that everything being is good, the positivist approach quite easily gets affected by such marketing ventures. To them pictures of God or human beings in reverence, Biblical stories and incidents hold an incredible position of awe. The epistemological will however, want to understand the background work of such institutions and evaluate their working on a methodology of knowledge procurement. Since this assumption forms the basis of the interpretivist approach, its inherent nature is to question and acquire proof. The epistemologist will not simply read the lines in Evangelistical literature and other printed material, they will go beyond and read between them to arrive at a logical conclusion dispensing the empirical one. To the persons influenced by epistemological way of thought coloured visuals do not hold any meaning. They are redundant. Such people will want to question the authenticity if at all. They may not be atheist. Epistemological assumption is merely their way of analyzing that which they are encountering in their daily life. Part C - Qualitative research is typically taken to be exemplified by the social survey and by experimental investigations. Qualitative Research tends to be associated with participant observation and unstructured in depth interviewing. Qualitative data consist of words and observations, not numbers. As with all data, analysis and interpretation are required to bring order and understanding. This requires creativity, discipline and a systematic approach. It is often called content analysis. The aim of Qualitative Data Analysis is that of collating data collected and making it applicable to business research and development. The target audience when intelligently tapped yields a plethora of information which needs to be systematically and logically disseminated, sifted and made into a coherent whole. The entire process is not empirical - but highly logical. This data is primarily narrative. It is derived from a number of sources, individualistic and groups. It comprises either spoken words or written words, sometimes both together. In this study a critical comparison will be drawn between the spoken word and the written word for both individuals and groups. Methodology Module 1 : Individualistic and Groups ( Spoken) Data collection through individuals and groups maybe done through objective Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) or Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs). There may also be comments, or first hand accounts, eliciting information through phrases or textual paragraphs or by way of individuals one on ones. The last named elicit data in the form of summary or transcription from the spoken word. The same methodology applies to group discussions wherein target of focus groups are subject to detailed questionnaires which provide enormous amount of data. Multiple Choice Questions, Frequently Asked Questions, comments, or first hand accounts eliciting information through phrases or textual paragraphs or by way of Group Discussions all form part of the same methodology Methodology Module 2 : Individualistic and Groups (Written) Jottings, diary entries, notes and sub notes, observations and journalistic writings are also invaluable sources of data collections. Watch and wait methods which provide field notes, and descriptive accounts are indispensable to data collection. Again, the use of the written word from documents, articles, reports, newspaper clippings are of immense help to the data collector. First hand experiences and stories are again of ample help. Lastly, to lend a semblance of realism one relies on case studies to provide that extra flavour of day to day life. Collection of data orally, may include the facial expression of the subject, his or emotional reactions, predicament. There lies very little scope of misinterpretation while analyzing this data. That is, provided the collector and the analyst is the same person. Not only are the verbal reactions getting collected, also their non verbal reactions form part of the analysis. This is the interesting part of qualitative data, human reactions. Written data is collected at a much later stage and analysed even later. There is often the scope of misinterpretation since the author wrote the data much earlier than it was collected. Emotional reactions are missing, predicament of the author is more often than not clearly understood The written data can never denied or tampered with. Oral data is far more subject to tampering. Once the data is in hand, the next step is to make it useful. It is not that all the data collected is of sufficient utility or valuable to be used but it has to be properly read and re read before requisite information can be garnered from it. It is obvious that the spoken word depends largely on the mode of answering questions as well as the mood of both the persons asking and the one answering. Thus a degree of subjectivity creeps in the oral word while the written answers dispense with subjectivity. The data once identified is then analysed to be made attributable to the purpose of collection. In other words, it is made to focus on the job at hand through topics, period of time as well as particular event. Similarly, the data collated in terms of cases individuals or groups runs the risk of the age factor being misrepresented which amounts to a great deal of confusion. In such a scenario greater credence is given to the written word. The data collected when categorized in terms of particular ideas, patterns, themes, focus groups, throw up the question of accuracy. Here in again one finds the prospect of misrepresentation, juxtaposition of words or wrongful interpretations looming large causing an impediment to accuracy. Consequently, the written word finds favour above the oral word. A large part of data collection is dependent on the person collecting which precludes errors and omissions while on the job. The crux of data analysis after collection is sound and accurate interpretation which obviously means burning the midnight oil for an extended period of time. This in turn revolves largely on going through the same data collected again and again so that a correct picture emerges from the vast amplitude of data collected. Here, what is important from this vast plentitude maybe a mere 10% or less. Thus, the importance of the accuracy of the written word cannot be undermined. Often after analysis if it is found that relevant data is rather meager, then data collection has to be done all over again. This can get very tedious. The researcher needs to have an inherent patience while doing field work. Collection of qualitative data can be very difficult and often confusing. An important aspect of collating and analysing data is creating a link between categories created through the commonality of patterns and other similarities. Wherever descriptive analysis has to be affected the written word is by far important than the spoken word. The catch phrases of category within categories and larger or relative importance within themselves incorporating some relationship or the other help explain why a particular link is forged. Therefore, while relating words or phrases or answers individualistic opinions of the writer tend to overshadow accuracy of answers. Here again, if answers are descriptive or gleamed from diaries, reports or newspaper clippings or journalistic entries and others, chances of forging links based on similarities are much higher. The ultimate object is to garner as much information ad similar data as possible Sifting through data obtained by both means, oral and written, individual or group, is a humongous task but is the hallmark of accuracy. It is not enough to simply obtain data, from all the sources available as mentioned above, but to embark on the task of accurately logically interpreting all that collected and making it applicable as an indispensable tool of research. To that effect, the entire gamut of data has to be interpreted through key words and phrases through relationships and words of similar meanings, through antonyms and synonyms, acronyms and abbreviations, through pneumonyms and other similarities to arrive at effective analysed. All the above have to be properly synthesized to prepare the mother of all analysis - the final report. Like a film which we see is subject to the editor's chopping and cutting and a large part of the film shot ends up on the editing floor, the final report emerges only after enormous amount of cutting and sorting process. To arrive at this final process it is important to check, recheck and identify correct data t be utilized for the final run. This checking can be by means of manual or electronic means. It is imperative that a reference frame against which this checking rechecking and identification processes is possible be prepared prior to formation of the final report. Consequently the importance of the written reference which leaves hardly any margin of error, cannot be undermined. Inaccuracy, subjectivity, mood swings, circumstances and most importantly the inclination to produce and procure correct useable data are all vagaries with which the spoken word, both for individuals and groups are associated. In general terms larger credibility of existing written, or elicited written data belies the importance of checking and rechecking data collated. Prime Facie all that is collected is not accurate and does not always hold good. But at the same time care should be taken to ensure that bias does not creep in to remove and disregard carefully garnered data. The primary importance of sources with reference to oral data is woefully inadequate when it is subject to the test of checking and rechecking. It is by no means easy to arrive at a wealth of data but simultaneously it is also not easy to garner accurate useable data from all that wealth. Once again it is found that textual references or data of the written kind far outweighs oral and sometimes inaccurate data. Reproducing the Qualitative data collected after analyzing it entails a huge amount of moral consequences. The amount of confidentiality to be maintained as also the relevance of the data at the time of analysis and final report, even to a great extent the authenticity of the data collected is solely dependent on the researcher. All researchers have to bear in mind the incredible moral consequences of what is constructed through qualitative research. Working with qualitative data is a rich and enlightening experience. It is both a science and art. It involves critical, analytical thinking and creative innovative perspectives (Patton 1990). Conclusion - A Dissertation is essentially a detailed culmination of the research conducted. It is a written testimony of the learning experience of the student. Its comprehensiveness and elaborateness bears witness to the understanding and grasp of the student of the research work done. Most importantly researchers have to remember how ontological and epistemological assumptions affect the positivist approaches and interpretivist approaches. 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