Learning Behavior for Children at School - Assignment Example

Running Head: LEARNING BEHAVIOUR Learning Behaviour s This paper shall discuss about how children can learn to behave appropriately in school and so in society. The paper would also identify and critically analyse strategies school and individuals (teachers, support staff and children) use to manage behaviour and considering how behaviour management might (or might not) lead to children learning appropriate behaviour. A summary of the research shall be presented at the end of the paper, which would summarize the research and derive the results from the studied literature. Table of Content Learning Behaviour Introduction This paper assesses the unique and complementary ability of childhood intelligence and learning-related behaviour to explain variation in children learning appropriate behaviour both in the society and in the classroom. Positive behaviour management (PBM) has recently been recommended as a more acceptable form of management in the classroom than traditional behaviour modification (Cheesman & Watts, 2001). It focuses upon building up a positive atmosphere by involving the pupil as a partner in the educational process (Pierce & Van Houten, 2000) and emphasises the need to give pupils every opportunity to develop self discipline through appropriate learning experiences (Brophy, 2001; Duke & Jones, 2001; Pepper & Henry, 2001; Wayson, 2001). Where behaviour needs to be changed pupils are invited to set behavioural goals with the teacher and, in some cases, monitor and record their own progress (McNamara, 2004). In relation to Skinner's theory, I have observed this in the classroom situation positive behaviour management relies upon the principles of positive reinforcement (Skinner, 2003) with appropriate behaviour rewarded and inappropriate behaviour ignored, wherever possible. It therefore avoids the negativity incumbent upon the withdrawal of privileges in time out' and response-cost systems of behaviour modification. I observed during my experience as a student teacher that it also rejects the aversive control techniques' of the coercive and punitive disciplinary approaches, traditionally used in British schools. I observed that in light of Thomas's teachings, such measures, introduce an "adversary orientation" into a classroom which "fosters super ordinate-subordinate and competitive relationships both between... teachers and students and students and their peers"(Thomas 2000, p. 149). Positive behaviour management, as per the National Curriculum Science, offers a more optimistic alternative, for it seeks to change the problem' behaviour by changing both the contingent conditions, which may be maintaining the behaviour, and the antecedent conditions, which may have initiated the behaviour in the first place. I agree with Jason & Kuchay (2001, p. 413) who suggested that the antecedent' conditions (the stimulus' in Skinnerian terms) exert just as powerful a control over behaviour as do contingencies of reinforcement. Moreover, changing the antecedent conditions of the behaviour is seen as less mechanistic and manipulative than the control of the schedules of reinforcement for, in this way, positive behaviour is invited rather than behaviour which is deemed inappropriate, suppressed. (Wragg 1984) Discussion I observed during my experience as a student teacher that Brophy's description of instruction, as "actions taken specifically to assist students in mastering the formal curriculum" (2001 p. 2) is very much true, in view of my experience as a student teacher. Actions taken in the classroom that are not directly or explicitly designed to improve students' mastery of a particular subject are considered "non-instruction". One aspect of non-instruction is the teacher's management or organization of the classroom, which includes the creation and maintenance of learning environments that support the goals of academic instruction (Brophy, 2001). However, I think that accumulating evidence points to a crucial role for classroom management and organization in shaping instructional activities and student outcomes (Brophy, 2001, Evertson et al., 1997, Lewis, 2001 and Matheny & Edwards, 2003). In their large study of schools, Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, Ouston, and Smith (2004) pointed out that more organized teachers, who did not waste time in transitory periods (e.g., handing out papers) had better behaved children. Moreover, time spent organizing activities and orienting students to new tasks has been found to positively affect instruction as well as student behaviours (Good, 2004). My investigations My investigation of primary classrooms (which I normally teach) revealed that intensive use of time and efficient management related positively with cognitive outcomes, suggesting that organization and management may help increase opportunities to learn (Helmke, Schneider, & Weinert, 2000). Similarly, Guthrie, Schafer, and Huang (2001) demonstrated that achievement in reading was a function of opportunities to read and time spent engaged in reading in classrooms. Further, the skills emphasized in classrooms are those most affected by instructional time (Christian, Bachnan, & Morrison, 2001). Investigating the determinants of variation in instructional time is a crucial part of describing and creating effective classroom environments. My present study examines the role of classroom organization on two aspects of classroom functioning: time spent in transitions and time spent in instructional activities, the interaction of amount of time in organization with child characteristics and effects on classroom instruction is also considered. Record pupils' progress and achievements systematically to provide evidence of the range of their work, progress and attainment over time. They use this to help pupils review their own progress and to inform planning (GTC 2002) I found it surprising that there are a relatively limited number of reports that document the reciprocal nature of teacher-student interactions around disruptive behaviours. The Patterson (2001) study, conducted primarily with students with emotional/behavioural disorders (EBD) in self-contained classrooms, demonstrated that aggressive behaviours have a negative effect on the extent to which teachers interact with such students (e.g., Shores, Gunter, Denny, & Jack, 2002; Shores, Jack, Gunter, Ellis, DeBriere, & Wehby, 2002). My present study builds on this work by detailing the ongoing reciprocal sequence of interactions between teachers and a wide range of students regarding disruptive behaviours in general education classrooms. The study was primarily descriptive in nature and focused on naturally occurring events in the classrooms. Disruptive Behaviour Growing numbers of children in the UK are exhibiting disruptive or externalizing behaviours (also referred to as antisocial, challenging, defiant, noncompliant, aggressive, and acting-out behaviours) beyond the occasional minor incident typical of most youth during the normal course of development. Such behaviours have become one of the most pressing issues facing schools (Nelson, 2003). The UK National Centre for School Safety reports that 28,200 students and 5,200 teachers are physically attacked in my nation's secondary schools each month, and 19% of these victims require hospitalization (National Association of State Boards of Education, 2003). Further, growing numbers of students and teachers have reported that they are seriously concerned for their safety at school (National Association of State Boards of Education, 2003). In this context, it is of interest to more fully illuminate the ongoing reciprocal nature of teacher-student interactions regarding disruptive behaviour. Collaboration Another prominent theme in the consultation literature is the need for collaboration with other educational professionals rather than considering consultants as expert fonts of wisdom who help others (Bergan & Kratochwill, 2000; Brown, Pryzwansky, & Schulte, 2003). In collaborative consultation, school psychologists (or other consultants) strive to define the consultation situation as one of equals working together to solve an identified problem. Both consultant and consulted are viewed as experts in their domains who pool their expertise in the consultation situation. (Gray & Richer, 1988) Potential advantages of collaborative consultation include enhanced feelings of ownership of the problem by those involved, enhanced intervention acceptability ratings by teachers who are instrumental in intervention development, as well as enhanced likelihood of intervention implementation and follow through by the teacher. As Witt and Martens (2001) discussed in describing an empowerment model of consultation, consultation can produce more effective, long-lasting solutions when it is focused on helping teachers build on their current strengths and methods. Discipline and Science Enquiry According to the Elton Report, (1989), the School behaviour policy states that working toward effective, outcomes-based solutions to problems using a collaborative model of consultation addresses both the need for scientific objectivity and the need to acknowledge and incorporate more subjective interpersonal variables into consultation. However, appropriate integration of both of these considerations is likely to result in more effective interventions than approaches that consider only one. (Fontana 1985) Discipline in school and classrooms is very important as one area frequently of concern to student teachers like me and other school officials is classroom discipline problems. As Gettinger (2001) discussed, methods for handling discipline problems have changed over the years from solely a reactive approach (responding after individual student misbehaviour) to a more proactive approach (organizing classroom procedures to minimize the occurrence of misbehaviour and to promote engaged behaviour of all students). As per the National Curriculum, a behaviour management program incorporating proactive activities emphasizing classroom rules was shown to be the most effective intervention in this study, particularly when considering time and effort involved for the teachers compared to the other two interventions. (DFE 1984) Are aware of, and work within, the statutory frameworks relating to teachers' responsibilities (GTC 2002) Actively teaching class rules in a class wide behaviour management system serves two important functions. (Chisholm 1986) First, the rules communicate exactly what is expected of the students. (McManus 1989) When the teacher actively teaches the rules, the students can be held responsible for knowing them and the teacher has a framework within which to arrange for subsequent consequences (Paine, Radicchi, Rosellini, Deutchman, & Darch, 2004). Second, the use of rules provides teachers with opportunities to reinforce student behaviour consistent with the rules and to attend to appropriate behaviours (Paine et al., 2004). Frequent reference to rules also keeps them salient among the many competing influences on behaviour in a classroom. Preventive Efforts The major difference between recent and earlier preventive efforts is the degree to which the new programs have been informed by basic scientific research on the development of delinquency. (Elton Report 1989) During the past several decades, a variety of parent and child behaviours during early and middle childhood have been consistently linked to delinquent behaviours during adolescence (Stoff, Breiling, & Maser, 2000). One of the most promising theories based on this research, and the theory upon which the LIFT is based, is coercion theory (Patterson, 2000; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 2000). In view of the coercion theory, the key mechanism hypothesized to drive the development of child problem behaviours is negative reinforcement. "Negative reinforcement" is the association of certain behaviours with the termination or delay of aversive situations, such as a person hitting the "snooze" button when his or her alarm rings in the morning. In contrast, the more familiar "positive reinforcement" or reward paradigm is the association of certain behaviours with a preferred occurrence or situation, such as a child receiving a piece of candy with lunch because he did not fight with his sister in the car on the way to school. In either reinforcement situation, over time, the behaviours that are most effective at leading to the desired outcome in a given situation become the most likely to occur when that situation occurs (e.g., alarm rings right arrow button pressed right arrow alarm off). Behaviourism One of the key theories of behaviour management, known as "behaviourism", is associated mainly with B.F. Skinner, who introduced the idea of behaviour modification, i.e. moulding all children to conform by use of a system of standard punishments and rewards. Reinforcement is one of the key elements in Skinner's theory. According to Skinner (1976), a "reinforcer" is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative "reinforces" - any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn. Skinner's ideas have often been considered the most influential in the field of learning theories that have been used in classrooms both in terms of managing behaviour and in terms of instructional strategies. A number of discipline models emerged from this theory to help teachers develop a structured approach to managing behaviour in primary classrooms in Britain. Have high expectations of all pupils; respect their social, cultural, linguistic, religious and ethnic backgrounds; and are committed to raising their educational achievement (GTC, 2002) One promising target for behavioural assessment and intervention is the constellation of learning-related behaviours that students display in the school context. Such learning behaviours include observable problem-solving strategies, flexibility, attention, and responses to learning situations (competition, novelty, error, etc.) in classroom settings (McDermott & Beitman, 2000). What has been absent, regrettably, is a uniform and cost-beneficial mechanism for gathering information about such behaviours across large numbers of children (although useful but relatively cost-intensive methods had been proposed earlier by McKinney and Reynolds). Learning Behaviour Scale Recently, however, researchers have produced a standardized measuring device that is formed on a large and nationally representative sample of classroom students. The Learning Behaviours Scale (LBS) (McDermott, Green, Francis, & Stott, 2002) is a brief and summarise observation device for classroom teachers. It has been standardized nationwide on a large sample conforming to the U.K. primary grade youth population, and it provides specific information on behavioural dimensions keyed directly to successful versus faulty scholastic performance (competence motivation, attitude toward learning, attention/persistence, and strategy/flexibility). These dimensions comport closely with those that Anderson and Messick (2001) recommended for intervention and with successful programs designed to improve basic learning skills and collateral academic achievement (Stott et al., 2000). A fundamental problem in this respect is the failure of assessments that are claimed as viable alternatives to intelligence to first establish that they are not essentially redundant to intelligence or that they are causally linked to demographic factors that are virtually immutable (age, gender, ethnicity, social class, geographic density, etc.). Thus, for example, promising notions related to child temperament, social competence, or estimated learning potential have been fostered with little or no attention given to their dependence upon intellectual constructs, their ability to augment information already provided by intelligence measures, or their requisite autonomy from unchangeable genetic and environmental factors (Alexander; Guerin; Kohn and Martin). My Experience "Effective behaviour management is essential to the smooth running of a school and in the creation of an environment where everyone's rights and responsibilities are addressed. A balance between fundamental rights and responsibilities is at the heart of behaviour management" (Rogers, 2000 p.12). The school system and the community of people that constitute the school need to be the focus for intervention and change. As Rutter (1979) argued, positive and measurable outcomes in behaviour and learning can occur apart from the socioeconomic conditions of the children in school. Progress will be limited if the schools attitude and stance is "How can we be expected to develop good learning and behaviour when we have got kids like these in this environment." The classroom climate has a huge impact on pupil's motivation and attitudes to learning. A study by Wragg and Wood (1989) emphasises the importance of the first few lessons with a new class in establishing positive behaviour and fostering pupil's intrinsic and extrinsic motivation towards learning. Jones and Jones (1998) formula - Motivation = expectation of success x expected benefits of success x work climate. Kyriacou (2001) claims that the classroom itself should be purposeful, task-orientated, relaxed warm and supportive with emphasis on the pupils and their learning. (Mosteyt 1991) The appearance and layout of the class is equally conducive to positive attitudes and should facilitate the activities taking place. Glasser (1986) Johnson and Johnson (1991) Johnson et al (1993) observed the positive influences that peers have on each other's learning. Gooderow, (1993) and Kohn (1996) claimed if children felt supported at school and trusted their peers, they would enjoy it more, value their learning and put in more effort. Whereas Mize (1995) argued that withdrawn and unhappy children negatively affect the atmosphere and can sometimes provoke discipline issues. Identifying situations likely to cause unacceptable responses is a vital skill within the classroom. Kyriacou (2001) claims that 'prevention is better than cure'. A good teacher is able to minimise the occurrence of pupil misbehaviour and that the essence of pre-empting misbehaviour lies in vigilance plus action. Sue Cowley (2003) felt that boredom is a factor causing some students to misbehave in class. Pupils to remain focussed and not succumb to unacceptable responses. Glasser believes that disruptive student behaviour arises because school work does not meet individual pupils' needs. Teachers and Teaching Assistants should be aware of these needs within the classroom and take any specific learning and emotional difficulties into account. Avoiding confrontation and remaining positive and calm are the keys to achieving a serene atmosphere. "Frame everything you say in a positive light" (Cowley 2003) Establishing classroom rules are best developed over the first few weeks of the academic year when children are psychologically and developmentally ready to hear them. (Rogers 2000). Sue Cowley (2003) agrees and says a set of rules makes a teachers life easier and they can refer to these when giving punishment, making it clear they are following school policy rather than personally attacking the child. Equally important in motivating positive behaviour in the classroom is praise and reward. Carter and Carter (1992) agree that positive recognition is the 'sincere and meaningful attention you give a student for behaving according to your expectations' and will motivate them to repeat appropriate behaviour and increase self esteem. A report based on school inspections Ofsted (1993) have noted the importance of the example set by teachers when establishing positive ethos in the classroom. Child A is eleven years old, he is of mixed race, living with dad, older brother and grandmother. Older brother is a bully and is embarrassed by his younger brothers learning difficulties, taking every opportunity to humiliate him and call him 'thick'. As a result, Child A has been witness to acts of incredible emotional and physical abuse. Will have learned their problematic behaviour through example. Their parents may have had a lack of parenting skills, or indeed they may have reacted in a very aggressive, negative way to the child throughout their upbringing." (Cowley 2003 p101) He has difficulty in understanding why his teachers and peers find his behaviour objectionable and feels he is victimised because he is regarded. In the classroom, during the introduction of a whole class lesson, Child A frequently finds the language difficult to comprehend. The class teacher differentiates the activities throughout the groups and providing Child A has support, he more often than not completes the task in hand. We have a Record of Achievement book for Child A to record stages of learning. "The need to foster pupils' self esteem as learners is fundamental to establishing a positive classroom climate, and the most important influence on pupils' self esteem in the classroom is your interaction with the pupils. If your comments to pupils are largely positive, supportive, encouraging, praising, valuing and relaxing, rather than negative, deprecating, harsh, attacking, dominating and anxiety provoking, this will do much to foster pupils; self esteem". (Kyriacou 1991 p73). I recognise the importance of promoting independence, so try to remain one step behind, allowing Child A to take calculated risks. Child A does not enjoy school and seems to regard it as an alien, hostile place. Unless Child A has got one to one support within the classroom, the content of the lesson doers not always allow him to contribute ideas from his own knowledge and experience. I feel he disguises this lack of understanding by work avoidance tactics i.e. disruptive behaviour. The classroom is quite light and airy but tends to be overcrowded, which makes it easy for Child A to distract others or to be easily distracted himself. In our classroom, the school rules are displayed prominently and all resources are easily accessible and clearly labelled. Child A usually sits at the front of the class at a desk on his own from choice. Adults in the classroom use non-verbal communication to minimise attention if he starts to get restless. The class teacher gives clear expectations of behaviour both clear expectations of behaviour both both clear expectations of behaviour both both both clear expectations of behaviour both both both both clear expectations of behaviour both to him and the rest of the class regularly. Recently Year 6 was having a spelling test and Child A was encouraged to 'have a go'. Furthermore, your behaviour should serve to dissuade pupils from misbehaving in this way again in similar circumstances" (Kyriacou 1991 p81) Offering choices as a means of managing behaviour, shifts the emphasis from compliance to cop-operation". (Wright 1998 p10) However, we have very few supportive parents who support the School's policy of courtesy and respect for others. The majority show little responsibility towards developing good behaviour and positive attitudes in their children, making the effective management of behaviour extremely difficult. As with all children, Child A responds to praise and during the recent SAT's tests in year 6, he really persevered with his science paper as he had a reader. For some of these children, school is the only place where they have any sort of stability. As Rutter (1979) stated, socioeconomic conditions need not impede a child's learning, providing they are in a positive environment whilst learning is taking place. It is too easy to see children as a 'lost cause'. Peer support works well within the classroom (Gooderow 1993. Kohn 1996). Child A responds well to the attention he receives from his classmates. (Mize 1995). The use of body language, eye contact, is prevalent within the classroom and can pre-empt misbehaviour. Minor disruptions are generally ignored wherever possible. "Sometimes it is best to tactically ignore a student who has broken a rule, and reinforce the right kind of behaviour. Students who call out instead of raising their hands should not gain your attention. Child A often responds to a hard stare or the presence of an adult standing near to him. As Sue Cowley (2003) claims, boredom is a huge factor contributing to misbehaviour in the classroom. If children dislike school and see it as a place they are forced to stay, they come into school in a negative frame of mind. Glasser believes that if pupil's individual needs are ignored, then boredom gives rise to disruptive behaviour. Child A has differentiated work sheets and activities, whenever possible and whoever is working with him aims to bring the learning objective in line with his capabilities through reinforcement. Wade and Moore (1993) noted that just managing children's behaviour without attempting to understand their feelings can be a dangerous course to follow (Lorenz 2001 p21) As a result we spent nearly all of the first week going over class rules with the children and reiterating the school policy. We undertook the decision as a whole school in order to achieve consistency (Emmer et al 1997, Evertson et al 1997). Unfortunately, as with many things in life, everyone starts with good intentions but consistency proves difficult, especially if support is not always evident and children are quick to learn that a final warning does not always mean a visit to the Head teacher. National Curriculum Science provided a basis for further research on this topic. On a more positive note, we have numerous reward incentives in school to promote positive behaviour. I.e. house points, merit stickers, excellent stickers, Head teacher's awards, and Prize Giving at the end of the year. Teachers are always careful to choose children that have made the most progress, not just the academic ones. As I mentioned earlier, Child A receiving a level 4 in science, was a huge progression for him and really boosted his self esteem. As a student teacher, I try to remain positive at all times and be a good role model both in the classroom and for my own children at home. My studies during the course of this module have enabled me to be more confident when assessing behaviour management strategies and fostering self-esteem. Summary and Conclusion The above literature and personal experiences have illustrated the dire need for further research and study in this important aspect of education. The future of the learning role is set to be significantly different from what we perceive it today. The School behaviour policy states that psychology reform have identified the need to shift from emphasizing diagnosis of pathology within a given child to an examination of ecological factors that can be useful in solving learning and behaviour problems (Alessi, 2001; Reschly, 2001). It is argued that environmental factors, such as classroom management techniques and type of instruction, can be altered more readily than relatively permanent organic features of individual children. I have therefore related my personal experience with the theory mentioned above, especially in cases where developing interventions that manipulate such factors and accumulating data demonstrating intervention effectiveness can be important tools in encouraging teachers and other school professionals to move toward environmentally based solutions to classroom problems. This approach is in contrast to student-focused explanations for problems, which typically yield little information or direction for classroom-based intervention (e.g., "Well, there's not much I can do here in school--he comes from a dysfunctional family and they really need to get into counselling."). I believe that in the future the guiding school professionals (or student teachers) toward testing feasible class wide solutions to problems would be particularly appropriate in situations where a class includes more than one student exhibiting the same problem behaviours, as in the current study. An additional advantage of developing class wide interventions is that other students with similar but less noticeable problem behaviours also will benefit. Thus, a shift in emphasis is encouraged, from professional time focused on a case, to efforts focused on solving problems in context (Green & Shinn, 2000). In this manner, effective school psychology practice can benefit greater numbers of children. I shall strive and hope for the same for all UK teachers (and student teachers), that the future may hold a lot more learning experience for them and their students. Bibliography Alessi, G. (2001). Diagnosis diagnosed: A systemic reaction. Professional School Psychology, 3, 145-151. Anderson, S. and Messick, S., 2001. Social competency in young children. Developmental Psychology 10, pp. 282-293. Barnett, D.W., Bauer, A.M., Ehrhardt, K.E., Lentz, F.E. and Stollar, S.A., 2003. Keystone targets for changes: Planning for widespread positive consequences. School Psychology Quarterly 11, pp. 95-117. BBC Education. (1984). The Management of Pupil Behaviour. BBC Education. Bergan, J. R., & Kratochwill, T. R. (2000). Behavioural consultation and therapy. New York: Plenum. Brophy, 2001 J. Brophy, Educating teachers about managing classrooms and students, Teaching & Teacher Education 4 (2001) (1), pp. 1-18. Brophy, 2001 J. Brophy, Research linking teacher behavior to student achievement: Potential implications for instruction of Chapter 1 students, Educational Psychologist 23 (2001) (3), pp. 235-286. Brophy, J. (2004) Classroom management as instruction: socializing self-guidance in students, Theory into Practice, 24, pp. 233-240. Brown, D., Pryzwansky, W. B., & Schulte, A. C. (2003). Psychological consultation: Introduction to theory and practice. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Cheesman, P.L. & Watts, P.E. (2001) Positive Behaviour Management: a manual for teachers (Beckenham, Croom Helm). Chisholm, B., et al, (1986). Preventative Approaches to Disruption (PAD). Macmillan Education. Christian et al., 2001 K. Christian, H.J. Bachnan and F.J. Morrison, Schooling and cognitive development, Environmental effects on cognitive abilities, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, Mahwah, NJ, US (2001), pp. 287-335. DFE. (1984). Circular 8/94 Pupil Behaviour and Discipline. DFE/HMSO, London. Duke, D.L. & Jones, V.F. (2001) What can schools do to foster student responsibility Theory into Practice, 24, pp. 240-245. Dweck, C.S. and Leggett, E., 2000. A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review 95, pp. 256-273. Dweck, C.S., 2000. The role of expectations and attribution in the alleviation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31, pp. 674-685. Elton Report. (1989) Discipline in schools: Report of the Committee of Enquiry. DES, London. Engelmann, B.A., Granzin, A. and Severson, H., 2003. Diagnosing instruction. Journal of Special Education 13, pp. 355-363. Evertson et al., 1997 C.M. Evertson, E.T. Emmer, J.P. Sanford and B.S. Clements, Improving classroom management: An experiment in school classrooms, School Journal 84 (2004) (2), pp. 173-188. Fontana, D (1985) Classroom Control. Methuen, London. Gettinger, M. (2001). Methods of proactive classroom management. School Psychology Review, 17, 227-242. Good, 2004 T.L. Good, Classroom research: A decade of progress, Educational Psychologist 18 (2004) (3), pp. 127-144. Gottfried, A., 2001. Academic intrinsic motivation in young classroom children. Journal of Educational Psychology 82, pp. 525-538. Gray, J. & Richer, J. (1988). Classroom Responses to Disruptive Behaviour. Macmillan Ed. Green, S. K., & Shinn, M. R. (2000). Curriculum-based measurement: Facilitating dynamic, outcome-based consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 1, 321-341. Green, S. K., & Stoner, G. (2000). A social psychologists' perspective on school psychology reform. School Psychology Quarterly, 5, 294-309. GTC: Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status laid out in qualifying to Teach (TTA 2002) http://www.gtce.org.uk/ accessed on 6th January 2007 Guerin, D.W., Gottfried, A.Q., Oliver, P.H. and Thomas, C.W., 2000. Temperament and school functioning during early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence 14, pp. 200-225. Guthrie et al., 2001 J.T. Guthrie, W.D. Schafer and C.-W. Huang, Benefits of opportunity to read and balanced instruction on the NAEP, Journal of Educational Research 94 (2001) (3), pp. 145-162. Harter, S., 2000. A new self-report scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom: Motivational and informational components. Developmental Psychology 17, pp. 300-312. Helmke et al., 2000 A. Helmke, W. Schneider and F.E. Weinert, Quality of instruction and classroom learning outcomes: The German contribution to the IEA Classroom Environment Study, Teaching & Teacher Education 2 (2000) (1), pp. 1-18. Jason, L.A. & Kuchay, D.A. (2001) Ecological influences on school children's classroom behaviour, Education, 105,pp. 411-413. Kohn, M. and Rosman, B.L., 2001. Socio-emotional, cognitive, and demographic determinants of poor school achievement: Implications for a strategy of intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology 66, pp. 267-276. Kounin J.S. (1970). Discipline & Group Management in Classrooms. Holt, Reinhart & Winston, New York Kratochwill, T. R., & Bergan, J. R. (2000). Behavioural consultation in applied settings: An individual guide. New York: Plenum. Lewis, 2001 R. Lewis, Classroom discipline and student responsibility: The students' view, Teaching & Teacher Education 17 (2001) (3), pp. 307-319. Martin, R.P., 2000. . Temperament Assessment Battery for Children Manual Clinical Psychology Publishing Company, Brandon, VT. Martin, R.P., Drew, K.D., Gaddis, L.R. and Moseley, M., 2000. Prediction of classroom achievement from preschool temperament: Three studies. School Psychology Review 17, pp. 125-137. Matheny & Edwards, 2003 K.B. Matheny and C.R. Edwards, Academic improvement through an experimental classroom management system, Journal of School McDermott, P.A., 2000. Comparative functions of preschool learning style and IQ in predicting future academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology 9, pp. 38-47. McDermott, P.A., Green, L.F., Francis, J.M. and Stott, D.H., 2002. . Learning Behaviours Scale Edumetric and Clinical Science, Philadelphia. McManus, M (1989). Troublesome Behaviour in the Classroom - A Teachers' Survival Guide. Routledge, London Mcnamara, E. (2004) The use of self recording in behaviour modification in a secondary school, Behavioural Psychotherapy, 7, pp. 57-66. Mosteyt, J. (1991). A Circular Response to the Eton Report. A Social Context for improving Behaviours: Journal of the Educational Section of the British Psychological Society. Vo1 15. No2 68-71 National Association of State Boards of Education. (2003). Schools without fear (Report of the NASBE study group on violence and its impact on schools and learning). London, UK. Nelson, J.R. (2003). Designing schools to meet the needs of students who exhibit disruptive behaviours. Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 4, 147-161. P.A. and Beitman, B.S., 2000. Standardization of a scale for the study of children's learning styles: Structure, stability, and criterion validity. Psychology in the Schools 21, pp. 5-13. Paine, S.C., Radicchi, J. S., Rosellini, L. C., Deutchman, L., & Darch, C. B. (2004). Structuring your classroom for academic success. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Patterson, G. (2001). Performance models for antisocial boys. British Psychologist, 41, 432-444. Patterson, G. R. (2000). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia. Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (2000). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia. Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (2002). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press. Pepper, F.C. & Henry, S.L. (2001) Using developmental and democratic practices to teach self discipline, Theory into Practice, 24, pp. 264-268. Pierce, M.M. & Van Houten, R. (2000) Involving your students in the educational process: partnerships in the classroom, Pointer, 29, pp. 38-45. Reschly, D. J. (2001). Special education reform: School psychology revolution. School Psychology Review, 17, 459-475. Reynolds, M. C. (2001). Alternative educational delivery systems: Implications for school psychology In J. L. Graden, J. E. Zins, & M. J. Curtis (Eds.), Alternative educational delivery systems: Enhancing instructional options for all students (pp. 555-562). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists. Reynolds, W.M., 2003. Development and validation of a scale to measure learning-related classroom behaviours. Educational and Psychological Measurement 39, pp. 1011-1018. Rutter et al., 2004 M. Rutter, B. Maughan, P. Mortimore, J. Ouston and A. Smith, Fifteen thousand hours: Secondary schools and their effects on children, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA (2004). Shores, R. E., Gunter, P. L., Denny, S. L., & Jack, S. L. (2002). Classroom management strategies: Are they ecological contexts for coercion Behavioural Disorders, 17, 178-190. Shores, R. E., Jack, S. L., Gunter, P. L., Ellis, D. N., DeBriere, T. J., & Wehby, J. H. (2002). Classroom interactions of children with behavioural disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 1, 27-39. Skinner, B.F. (1976) About Behaviorism (London, Jonathan Cape). Stoff, D. M., Breiling, J., & Maser, J. D. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of antisocial behavior. New York: Wiley. Stoner, G., & Green, S. K. (2000). Reconsidering the scientist-practitioner model for school psychology practice. School Psychology Review, 21, 155-166. Stott, D.H., McDermott, P.A., Green, L.F. and Francis, J.M., 2000. . Learning Behaviours Scale and Study of Children's Learning Behaviours: Research edition manual Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX. Thomas, W.B. (2000) Competition and co-operation as contradictory norms in urban schools: a sociological perspective, Bibliography of the Journal of Negro Education, 53, pp. 147-160. Wayson, W.W. (2001) Openings windows to teaching: empowering educators to teach self discipline, Theory into Practice, 24, pp. 227-232. Weinberg, R.A., 2003. Early childhood education and intervention: British Psychologist 34, pp. 912-916. Weiner, B., 2001. . Human motivation: Metaphors, theories and research Sage, Beverly Hills, CA. White, R.W., 2000. Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review 66, pp. 297-333. Witt, J. C., & Martens, B. K. (2001). Problems with problem-solving consultation: A re-analysis of assumptions, methods, and goals. School Psychology Review, 17, 211-226. Wragg, E, C. (1984). Class Management & Control- A Teaching Skills Workbook. Macmillan. Read More