Description and Analysis of the Acculturation Model - Essay Example

? Acculturation Model: Exam Acculturation Model: Exam Part A: The Acculturation Model Introduction Few people would argue that learning a second language is an easy and pain free endeavor. It seems that there are as many different theories about the process by which we learn another language as there are learners. That being said, some theories have proven much more effective than other is giving students the optimal opportunity to acquire a second language. The Acculturation Model proposed by John Schumann is perhaps one of the most widely known models for effective second language acquisition, and its use has been implemented into countless programs worldwide since its inception. Schumann’s model is a valiant attempt at describing the process that individuals go through in acquiring a second language. Specifically, it focuses on members of ethnic minorities, being described by Schumann as including immigrants, migrant workers, and their children. His study revolved around how these individuals learn their target language by being immersed in the natural setting of the majority language, with little access to their own native language (Ellis, 1994). This analytical essay aims to provide a thorough and critical analysis of the Acculturation Model, followed by an evaluation of how this theory specifically can best be incorporated into the second language classroom of today. Description and Discussion of Main Claims Schumann’s theory originally began as a study of six students who were non-English learners. One of those students was making little to no progress in terms of actually acquiring the English language. Since his language skills were sorely lacking, Schumann ascertained that the student’s cognitive development was stunted as a result. As he continued to study this lack of progress, Schumann determined that the poor results to this point could be traced back to the reality that the student had little to not contact with native English speakers, when compared to the other five students (Barjesteh, 2012, p. 581). This discovery lead to the first two factors of the Acculturation Model, which Schumann coined the social and psychological distance, and explained why the student’s progress was limited and he could not achieve any measure of desired fluency in the target language until these issues were resolved. With rapidly advancing globalization, research in the area of second language acquisition has expanded in recent years. The Acculturation Model continues to be of particular interest because of its approach to assimilation and direct contact with the target language. At its most basic level, acculturation is primarily defined as a combination of social and psychological factors that are commonly understood to be critical to the acquisition of a second language in a natural environment (Berry, 1997, p. 8). According to Barjesteh (2012), “The major claim of the model is that acculturation, which is a cluster of social-psychological factors, is the major cause of Second Language Acquisition” (p. 580). In making this claim, the Acculturation Model takes the position that any second language learner can be placed on a continuum in a natural setting with speakers of the target language. The speed and fluency with which a learner acquires the language, then, can be seen as a direct correlation to the proximity that learner has with native speakers in a social or psychological context (Larson-Freeman, 2007, p. 781). A further claim of this particular model is that the process of acculturation is not directly linked to second language acquisition, but should rather be looked at as the first of several factors that contribute to the successful learning of a second language. Again, acculturation in this context is viewed as the “integration of the L2 learner into the target linguistic community” (Barjesteh, 2012, p. 580). Acculturation, then, should as be viewed as a cause of L2 acquisition, one that brings a student into contact with native speakers of the target language. This contact will give the learner verbal interaction with other speakers, which will then enable them to negotiate and internalize various inputs that will begin to create a sense of understanding, leading to the eventual acquisition of the language (Schumann, 1986, p. 385). When looking at the major claims of the Acculturation Model, it is important to understand the concept of social distance. This is defined as the extent to which a language learner is involved in a social groups that put them in direct contact with members who speak a different language than their own. The less social distance a learner can put between themselves and members of the target language, the more beneficial and effective the acquisition process will be (Schumann, 1978). To understand this important claim, there are several key variables that need to be understood. The first is the idea of social dominance. The key to the Acculturation Model is to get two different groups into relatively close proximity with one another. If one group is perceived to be dominant over another, however, this can become quite difficult. An example would be a second language learner group that is inferior to the host language group politically, culturally, or economically. This can make them dependent upon the host culture, thereby inhibiting their ability to assimilate into the larger group. The model is dependent on the groups being nearly equal to one another in an effort to make it easier for second language learners to become a part of a social group in the target language (Barjesteh, 2012, p. 580). It is also important for the second language learner to assimilate, preserve, and adapt to a group in the target language. This best occur when the learner truly and passionately desires to assimilate into a group that is entirely consistent of members from the target language. The idea here is that the learner cannot really be forced to do this, as it needs to have some form of intrinsic value to the learner. They should also attempt to adapt and fit into the culture of the target language, even if they have difficult assimilating into it. The least desirable outcome would for a second language learner to remain linguistically and culturally isolated from the target language group. Under these circumstances, it would become difficult at best to truly acquire the desired language (Barjesteh, 2012, p. 581). It is also important that second language learners achieve a concept called enclosure within the target language group. This process evolves from the idea that, “The more the second language learner groups share social institutions such as schools, churches, workplaces, clubs, and other with the target language group, the more favorable the conditions will be for second language acquisition” (Barjesteh, 2012, p. 581). Rather than remaining within social groups that primarily consist of members from their own language group, it is critical that second language learners make a special effort to get involved in outside organizations that consist primarily of members from the target language. One it of particular interest to the Acculturation Model centers on cohesiveness and size. Schumann proposes that smaller second language learner groups will result in an increased likelihood of forming positive interactions with others from the target language. Smaller groups enhance the quality of the learning experience and make it more likely that the learner will be able to practice, comprehend, and internalize the language being acquired (Schumann, 1976). It is also important, for the acculturation process to be truly affected, that congruence and attitude be considered. It has been noted that, “The more similar the culture of the two groups, the more likely there will be social contact and thus language acquisition (Barjesteh, 2012, p. 581). This does not mean it is impossible for a second language to be acquired if the two cultures are incongruent; rather, it simply means that the acculturation process will be more involved. In addition, the attitude of the learner has a big role to play in the process of acculturation. If the second language leaner maintains a positive attitude towards members of the target language group, then the conditions for acquiring the language will become much more favorable. Finally, the longer that second language learners intend to stay in the environment of the target language, known as the intended length of residence, the more likely it is that they will view acquiring the language as a necessity. If the learner will just be immersed in the culture for a short time, they may not view the trouble of learning a second language to be worth the effort. If the desire is truly there to acquire the language, then the length of time required to accomplish that goal should be considered (Schumann, 1976). The aforementioned concepts are the social factors needed to take into account during the acculturation process. Secondary to that, according to Schumann, are the psychological factors. The two main areas considered here are language and culture shock. When a second language learner is beginning the progress of immersion, they are likely to experience certain levels of discomfort as the language and culture becomes known to them. How they deal with this reality will go a long way towards determining the extent to which they actually acquire the desired language (Barjesteh, 2012, p. 581) Evaluation The Acculturation Model is as relevant to the second language learner today as it was when it was first proposed; perhaps even more so. In particular, the model provides great insight for the teacher of second language learners. From the way students are divided in class to the assignments that are given outside of class, it behooves the teacher to help foster an environment of acculturation in nearly ever aspect of classroom life. As previously mentioned, the acquisition for a second language is a difficult task, but that difficulty is often compounded by feelings of loneliness and isolation. Second language learners can feel separated from the target language group and, as a result, withdraw even deeper into their own culture. When this occurs, language acquisition becomes nearly impossible. One way that this model can serve to enhance the classroom experience can occur by the teacher providing an atmosphere that encourages complete assimilation. While a learner’s home culture is important and must be valued, the teacher can work hard to make the classroom a complete culture in and of itself. This occurs by have rules against other languages being spoken, providing opportunities for fruitful interactions amongst all different social groups present in the room, and fostering cultural enrichment activities that completely enclose the second language learner into the target language group. In short, the acculturation model is a worthy addition to my classroom. Understanding that second language learners learn best when completely integrated into the context of the target language will assist me in tailoring my own instructional methodology in order to more effectively reach these students. If the class is mixed of native speakers and students still trying to acquire the language, then this model teaches me how to form social groups and implement cooperative learning strategies that puts second language learners with other students in order to foster the environment necessary to truly acculturate. Acculturation does not happen overnight and it is not necessarily an easy concept to implement in the classroom. The teacher does need to work hard to provide learning activities that truly provide the best opportunities for students to acquire the language. Having an understanding of the social and psychological factors necessary to make this happen is certainly a step in the right direction. Teachers need to get their second language learners into close proximity of the target language in nearly every aspect of the classroom environment in order for acculturation to truly take hold. This occurs in classroom assignments, the way that student’s are seated in the classroom, and various games and social events that are encountered during the duration of the class. In so doing, the communicative, integrative, and expressive functions of the acculturation model can take root. This implies that the teachers needs to provide opportunities for communication in the target language as much as possible, get second language learning to integrate into the target groups social functions, and to provide the tools necessary for second language learner to express themselves corrected in the target language. Accomplishing these goals in the classroom will certainly assist in the acculturation process. Word Count: 2,025 Question One: How can a knowledge of cognitive or learning styles of individual learners help a classroom teacher be more effective in class? In decades gone by, classroom teachers could teach using a methodology that they were comfortable with and reasonably expect that a majority of their students would adapt and learn. Those days, however, are over. Students today enter the classroom with a variety of learning styles and personalities. It is no longer feasible to expect the student to adapt to the teacher; rather, then teacher needs to be willing to adjust to the fluctuating needs of their diverse student population. Learning strategies utilized by students are generally dependent upon their individual learning style. With this fact in mind alone, the teacher would be great benefitted by understanding the various learning styles exhibited within a particular class. Some students, for example, are quite extroverted and enjoy meeting others. These students will benefit from cooperative learning strategies that pit them with others who share their same zeal. They also tend to exhibit a learning style that equips them to experiment openly with new ideas and concepts. With that in mind, the teacher might consider implementing strategies in the classroom that utilize experiments and other hands-on types of activities. The learning style demonstrated by the student indicates that they learn best by doing, not by seeing. There might be other students in the classroom, by way of comparison, that exhibit a learning style that is more introverted. They would benefit from teaching strategies that are more individualized in nature. If the teacher were to fail to recognize this reality, and thereby only focused on the extroverted students, other learners were feel left out and tend to lose focus altogether. A balance of activities would be need in a classroom with two types of learners in order to ensure that strategies were incorporated that effectively reached both types of students equally. In essence, the learning strategies that work best with an extroverted student will tend to vary drastically from those strategies used by an introverted, or otherwise reserved, student. It is important to remember that there is a distinction between the learning styles of individual students and actual learning strategies that are utilized in the classroom to facilitate the learning process. The term ‘learning style’ is a broad concept related to the approach that a student takes towards learning. It is generally based upon their own cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics (Schumann, 1990, p. 669). By this very definition alone, it become apparent how the cognitive ability of a student reflects on the learning strategies that work best with him or her. Learning strategies, by comparison, focus on the actual actions or behaviors that an individual implements into their own learning process. Some questions a teacher can ask themselves about each individual student in the class include: Does the student thrive more individually or corporately? What types of interactions does they student tend to have more often with his or classmates? Does the student enjoy hands on activities, or do they tend to shy away from them? When given the opportunity, does the student express him or her self better verbally, or in written form? By answering these, and other questions, the teacher can begin to put together a portrait of each student and make sure that they use certain strategies as often as possible when deciding which teaching methodologies to utilize in the class (Ritchie & Bhatia, 1996). It is important to understand that language learners may not necessarily what learning strategy they prefer using themselves. The teacher, then, has an important role to play. If certainly strategies used by a student seem to bore the learner, or they simply do not appear to be having much benefit, the teacher can direct the student towards other more helpful activities. The key is to use strategies that lead to success. Again, students might not always be aware of what they need to do be successful, but they will tend to follow the guidance given by the teacher, particularly when it comes to second language acquisition. It was stated that, “The most successful learners tend to use learning strategies that are appropriate to the material, to the task, and to their own goals, needs, and stage of learning” (Berry, 1997, p. 62). The implication is that all strategies implemented in the classroom need to be purposeful in their approach. If they meet with the cognitive abilities of the students, the chances for success will be much higher. It is important that the strategies used, combined with the learning styles exhibited by the student, provide a well-balanced approach to the material being covered. This can all be accomplished with a focused and driven teacher who is looking out for the interests of their class. Word Count: 777 Question Two: To which learning strategies would you try to expose your students? Why? There are many learning strategies that are beneficial in exposing second language learners to. Upon analyzing the various strategies, however, several stand out as particular useful to me and would be worthy of me exposing my students to. One of the main strategies that I would expose my students involves activities in the social category. When trying to acquire a second language, it is advantageous to become involved in as many social situations as possible, particularly those that represent the feelings and attitudes of the culture in the target language. This learning strategy encourages students ask questions, and it assimilates them into an environment where they become culturally aware. Being socially active is a process that can help acculturate the student much more quickly than if they were simply left on their own to perform individualized tasks. To encourage students to be social, the teacher can create cooperative learning activities that simulate a real-world environment. This also assists the process of acculturation by closing the social distance between the second language learner and students from the target language. This is a necessary endeavor in order to further along the process of assimilation. Students should also be encouraged to ask questions, and teachers should ask information from members of the class as well. Often times, learners will internalize a question and simply hope that it becomes answered during the course of the lesson. If it does not, then they are left wondering, or even worse, they formulate a false assumption about the answer. If, however, the teacher can foster a social environment within the classroom, then learners will tend to feel much more comfortable speaking and will often verbalize any questions that they may have. Naturally, it is important to understand that not all students thrive in a social environment. This fact alone, however, should not negate its use in the classroom. Second language acquisition requires, at some point, that the learner becomes active and engage in all processes associated with the target culture. That being said, it could be counterproductive to focus solely on social learning strategies with individuals who are more introverted. They should be eased into the process, which can begin by balancing teaching methodology with other learning strategies, such as those based of cognitive retention. Cognitive learning strategies typically focus on the skills of reasoning, analyzing, and summarizing (Ward, Fox, Wilson, Stauart, & Kus, 2009, p. 28). These key areas are also vital to the language acquisition process, and also provide more introverted students with the opportunity to express their comprehension in a style that is more comfortable and effective for them. Using a cognitive approach in the classroom is to encourage critical and creative thinking skills. The teacher might encourage students to consider reasons why the language is constructed in a certain way. Why do we use this word, but not that one? What is an appropriate word to describe this feeling? What would an inappropriate word be? These and other questions can be used in the classroom to get student’s thinking about the language in ways that cannot happen in a purely social context. Another aspect of the cognitive strategy is to have students analyze and summarize items. This can take on many shapes in the language classroom. Perhaps the class watches a documentary about the culture of the target language. Their task becomes to analyze a particular aspect of the video and to describe its relevance. The student scan also be encouraged to analyze the target culture and give a different perspective based on their own unique culture. What are the similarities and differences that they notice? In addition, to measure comprehension, the teacher can ask students to summarize what they have watched and give their own opinions. This cognitive approach actually hits on many different types of learning styles, and it also engages the students to really begin to apply certain language concepts in an effort to promote the quick acquisition of the second language. These are two strategies that I feel could prove highly effective in the second language classroom, given my own approach to teaching. The social aspect of the classroom promotes the acquisition of the language in a real-world context, while the cognitive approach engages students to think critically and creatively through various concepts covered in the class. This balanced approach will stretch students to get out of their comfort zone from time to time, while also encouraging them by providing activities that they are certain to excel in if they remain focus and desire. This will go a long way towards enhancing the acculturation process within the classroom. Word Count: 769 Question Six: Which affective or personality factor do you think has the great impact upon second language learning? In what ways? Enter into any classroom, and it is evident that certain personalities are more conducive to the overall learning process that others. This becomes even more apparent in the second language classroom. Learning a second language requires focus, dedication, desire, and passion. Very few people can acquire a second language without having a personality that is indicative of these factors because of the difficulty of the task. If a student cannot assess the relevance of a second language, for example, they are not likely to retain what is being taught in the classroom. Similar to the math student who cannot make any sense of algebra, the second language student who cannot figure out why his parents are making him learn another language will quickly begin to feel frustration and a lack of motivation. With this in mind, there are certain personality factors that do seem have a great impact on the ability of a student to not only learn, but to acquire a foreign language. Self-esteem plays an important role in how we learn in life and how we see ourselves. When learning a foreign language, this personality factor becomes increasingly important. To speak in front of others in our own native language is a daunting task for people with a low self-esteem to begin with, but to add in the complexity of a foreign language and the student can quickly be wrought with anxiety. Self-esteem involves the confidence, or lack thereof, that an individual has in his or her own ability. It has been demonstrated that this personality trait is critical in order to be highly successful in second language acquisition (Brown, 1994). People with a high self-esteem tend to be able to adapt to change more quickly, thrive in social situations, and are not afraid to try something new. These are all components of a successful second language program, so it is little wonder that those with a high self-esteem tend to grasp certain language concepts a bit more quickly, and that they begin to interact with members of the target language group a more easily. Many adults are hesitant to interact with others, demonstrating a low self-esteem. Teenagers are often very aware of their own limitations as well. If they do not feel entirely confident in their ability, they may not be willing to engage in conversations or activities that the teacher has outlined for them in their program. A misconception is that self-esteem cannot be improved upon; that it is a personality trait that must be dealt with. This is simply not the case. While it is a personality trait that affects one’s ability to learn a second language, an individual with a low sense of self-esteem should not be viewed as a ‘lost cause’. Individuals can increase their confidence slowly, over time, and begin to make great strides in a second language. This simply requires time and patience, both by the student and the teacher. It is commonly noted that individuals with a low self-esteem display more inhibition than other types of learners. This personality factor, then, would be a second component that impacts the ability to acquire a second language. If a student has a low sense of self-confidence, they will tend to build up a defense mechanism that will often alienate them from the culture that they are trying to interact with. This will make it more difficult for them to enter into social setting with members from the target language group, which will inhibit the ability to close the social distance necessary for acculturation (Schumann, 1976). Second language learners with an increase sense of inhibition tend to judge themselves harshly when they make mistakes, and they do not react well when they perceive others have judged them as well. In fact, under those circumstances, the learner may stop making attempts altogether until their self-esteem can be increased and their sense of inhibition lowered. In the end, the teacher can only do so much to encourage and motive a second language learner. Certainly, they have a responsibility to provide the tools and resources available that will help their students acquire the language. They can incorporate different strategies designed to involve their students in a variety of learning situations. They can even work with students individually to help them overcome problem areas. In the end, however, students are responsible for their own internal motivation. If the desire is truly not there to interact with the target language culture, for example, not amount of pressure or time spent by the teacher is likely to make an impact. Word Count: 761 References Barjesteh, H. (2013). The acculturation model for L2 acquisition: Review and evaluation. Advances in Asian Social Science, 2(4), 579-584. Berry, J. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaption. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46(1), 5-68. Brown, D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Brown, H. (1980). The optimal distance model of second language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 14(2), 157-164. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. 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