Female Genital Mutilation in London - Literature review Example

? Female Genital Mutilation among the Somali Community in London, And Its Effects on Girls’ (11-15) In Education Abstract The objective of this study is to conduct a literature review on Female Genital Mutilation among the Somali community living in London especially on girls aged 11-15 and examine it on education. The study will involve qualitative techniques based on interviews. The participants will be Somali community members, gynecologists and Somali girls aged 11-15. The study bases its key findings on the effects on female circumcision on education, and the problems associated with pregnancy and childbirth. The study will examine the reasons behind the practice including cultural stereotypes and attitudes. Finally, the study will highlight the major implications of the practice for girls aged 11-15. Definition of terms Female genital mutilation (FGM) – the general mutilation of female private parts Sunna circumcision – this is the first type of female circumcision, which involves removing the tip end of the clitoris Clitoridectomy – the second type of FGM, which involves the exclusion of the whole clitoris Infibulation – the cutting of eh female clitoris followed by sewing up of the vulva, but leaving parts for passing urine and menstrual blood. Pricking – a form of FGM that involves incising of the clitoris and the surrounding regions Culture – the traditional practices of a particular society Introduction One of the hotly discussed social topics across the globe is that of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Also known as female circumcision, the practices that is so common among the Somali communities and other tribes has on very many occasions attracted both national and international debates involving health and policy makers to discuss the way forward. According to the World Health Organization WHO (2010), female circumcision is a practice that involves the removal of the external genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. Communities practicing Female Genital Mutilation cite traditions and societal beliefs as the chief reasons behind the practice. Widely practiced among girls aged 11 and 15, the purveyors of FGM can choose either hospital or at home to carry out the vice. Mostly carried out minus anesthesia, statistics form WHO indicates that FGM is so common in Africa, and developed countries where FGM is common, the immigrants are the ones who practice it. Over 150 million young girls and women have undergone Female Genital Mutilation across the globe, at least according to World Health Organization. There are various reasons of carrying out FGM, at least according to some communities who cite the reduction of libido in women in order to control their sexual life. In United Kingdom, the Somalis have been the largest immigrant group according to the statistics released by the Refugee Council in 2005. However, these statistics do not have further information on the health needs of the Somali people living across UK. As Hammersley (1998) notes, over 34,000 Somalis living in London City alone, the women are the majority as compared to men by 56 percent to men’s 44 percent. Nonetheless, these figures do not include those of asylum seekers, just as it has always been hard to get the exact number of minority groups across UK. It is paramount to note that although not all health information of immigrants is available, specific health needs among of some immigrant communities are available. For example, some researchers have studies language and communication needs of the Somali people including their mental and physical conditions. Undoubtedly, these needs are vital when it comes to pregnancy and childbirth issues. Matters of maternal familiarities also need understanding of both social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, this paper will mainly review Female Genital Mutilation among Somali girls aged 11 and 15 and will examine the consequences of FGM when it comes to education. The paper will also examine the social and cultural needs of FGM among Somali immigrants living in London, and the intersection of FGM with the health needs of the Somali people (Epstein, 1998). Study area According to Sharp (2009), the study area is the area selected for research study. The study area of this study is London City where the practice is FGM is common among Somali immigrants. Since many Somalis associate with Islam, and the teachings of Islam advocate for female genital mutilation, this is the reason why the Somali community living in London practices FGM to girls aged 11-15. As Bell (1999) notes, the fact that immigration is now a global issue means that some practices initially practiced elsewhere gaining roots in places are considered hostile to those practices. Aims and objectives of the study The aim of this study is to examine female genital mutilation among Somali community living in London, and its adverse educational effects on girls aged 11-15. Female genital mutilation is now a global issue, as immigrants practice it even in foreign countries. The effects of FGM on education form the basis of this study, as it violated the fundamental human rights of women and girls (Alvis, 1994, pp. 241-256). Study objectives As Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000) notes, in order to document the reason why the Somali community living in London practices FGM on girls aged 11-15, the study takes the following objectives:- 1) To find out the perceptions of Somali community regarding female genital mutilation 2) To find out the reasons behind the practice within the Somali community 3) To examine and understand the societal norms and practices dominant in the Somali community 4) To identify those who within the Somali community have abandoned the practice and their reasons for doing so. 5) To examine the role of medics in female genital mutilation Research questions Hitchcock and Hughes (1989) explain that research questions define the methodology of study. There is no doubt that female genital mutilation is one of the most dangerous practices that not only leave the victims psychologically disturbed, but also tortured and sometimes, it can cause bleeding to death. The practice is a violation of the fundamental human rights of women and girls in the view of those who practice it and those who do not. Many communities regard it as a social practice where girls move from one childhood to adulthood without noting the consequences of the practice. Through the following research questions, the researcher will find useful literature on female genital mutilation within the Somali community living in London. 1) What natures of experiences do Somali women and girls undergo after female circumcision? 2) What are the reasons behind female genital mutilation of Somali girls? 3) Does female genital mutilation of Somali girls violate their fundamental human rights? Literature Review As noted in the introduction part, there is minimal data available in UK on the predominance of FGM among the Somali girls aged 11-15 living in London. However, although not documented, the practice is common among the Somalis living in London and these people mainly practice it to fulfill cultural and non-therapeutic needs. A forward study conducted some years ago that targeted the entire women population in London showed that over 66,000 women living in London had undergone Female Genital Mutilation. The study that was conducted in 2007 also estimates that over 23,000 girls, many of them immigrants, had undergone female circumcision at the age of 11-15. According to the study, the number of women who had reached childbearing age and at risk of Female Genital Mutilation was on the rise. According to Momoh (2005), FGM originated from Egypt and spread to other countries. He goes on to argue that even in USA and UK, some doctors also practiced FGM (infibulations) because they believed it was the best cure for conditions such as insanity and masturbation. He goes on to assert that in many societies where the practice is rampant, it is cultural factors that foster the continuation and people are just satisfied with the practice. They even perform ritual ceremonies in honor of those who have undergone the cut. Through her research, we note that the societal beliefs, norms, social ambiguities, social hierarchies and Christianity and other customs are the principal reasons why many societies practice FGM. The truth of the matter is that societies practice FGM based on divergent views. There are those who believe that it is the way to tame female population from engaging in multiple relationships, while others believe that it is a rite of passage from childhood into adulthood. It is also important to note that just like education, people also learn culture, and it passes from one generation to another. Haralambos and Holborn (2000, p. 790) define culture as a system of life of a particular community that has members. In other words, they believe that culture is a collection of routines and practices shared and conveyed from one generation to another, perhaps up to eternity. According to Boyle (2002, p. 26), the practice of FGM is no longer an issue that is only common in African countries. After all, many immigrants from African countries into the western world did go along with the practice and are busy practicing it there. Nonetheless, amid the issues raised on the dangers of FGM, there is no doubt that FGM is like a bond that holds people and communities together. Case study: The Human Rights Association in Finland The Human Rights Association in Finland embarked on a project in 2004 to educate the society on issues pertaining to health and sanitation. The project was mainly to educate professionals and societies alike on the safest ways to carry out FGM. In fact, the group was advising members of society to do away with the issue of FGM and instead focus on modalities of making the lives of women and girls better. According to Molsa (2004), Somalia born doctor living in Finland, the practice is so common among Somali immigrants who had come and settled in this foreign country. However, she notes that as compared to other years, the practice is slowly dying out due to social education from various non-governmental organization and some government quarters. For years, the Somali living Finland supported FGM and even performed the worst of the types, pharaonic, which simply meaning complete removal of the female genitals—the clitoris. These people lacked knowledge and understanding on the dangers associated with female genital mutilation. According to her research, it was difficult to conduct research simply because the matter is sensitive to the Somalis and they do not like mentioning it in public. In fact, according to the Somali traditions, female and males do not discuss matters related to sexuality. In his research on the issue of Somali community living in Helsinki and their FGM practice, he alludes that the Somali people do not discuss the issue of FGM openly and they are not willing to learn anything associated with it so long it is their religious practice. He blames lack of knowledge and other literature materials as the reason why these people are behind information. It has taken professionals a long time to educate these people on the dangers of FGM due to their religious ambiguities, and clearly, we can note that even among Somalis living in Helsinki, they also practice FGM. Female genital mutilation and sexual intercourse One of the chief reasons why communities practice female genital mutilation, especially those from African countries, is the fact that they believe it can have power over the sexual urge of both women and girls. As Dorkenoo (1995, p. 36) notes, many communities in Kenya, Sudan, Somali and Mali practice FGM in order to make women faithful to their partners. Some Ethiopian communities have queer explanations on why they cut the clitoris of women and girls. They assert that during birth, if the clitoris touches the head of the baby, the baby might die. Others note that if the clitoris remains uncut, it might grow longer and longer and become like a penis, and therefore in order to preserve femininity, it is good to trim it. According to Amnesty International (1997), female genital mutilation is a monster that causes serious infliction to women and girls especially during sexual intercourse. Women and girls who have undergone female genital mutilation experience severe pains during sex and this can put their lives at risk. For instance, infibulated women and girls can bleed during sexual intercourse, and it is advisable for them to seek medical attention. Otherwise, there is acknowledgement that mutilated women and girls do not experience sexual fulfillment due to the damages caused on their genitals. Religion Religion is also another reason why communities practice female genital mutilation. Many religious sects across the globe, for instance Islam, advocate female genital mutilation. These religious sects cite various reasons behind the support of the practice and they believe it is in tandem with their practices. According to Mustafa (2001), female genital mutilation is so common in Muslim communities as compared to other religious sects, as they associate it with “SUNNA” in the Holy Koran. He goes on to state that, in countries such as Somali and Sudan where Muslim practice is dominant over other religious sects, statistics do indicate that 81 percent of Muslim women and girls have undergone female genital mutilation compared to 18 percent Christian women and girls. Methodology Research Paradigm This exploratory research study makes use of the qualitative interpretivist paradigm since the questions it seeks to answer are primarily descriptive in nature. The study seeks to find answers about the practice of female genital mutilation. Qualitative research by nature, the questions will be vital in making exploratory remarks. The study aims to bring out rich information through exploratory studies, simply because there is no way one can identify a “cut girl” just by observation. It is due to different perceptions that this research seeks to find out the reasons why Somali community practices female genital mutilation (Sharp, 2009). There is no doubt that this qualitative research will take a more scientific approach, just the same way as quantitative research. Therefore, the flexible methods of data collection are vital here and include in-depth interviews, focus groups, participant observation and an interpretive, naturalistic approach that many researchers describe as useful in qualitative studies. It is also lucid that any qualitative study begs itself on past researches, ethnographic cases studies, personal experiences, historical analyses, introspective analogies and interrogation in order to illustrate the phenomenon under study (Morrison, 2000). Research Strategy Many people confuse between research strategy and data collection methods. The truth of the matter is the two are not the same. Research strategy is by and large the methodology, which the researcher reemploys to collect data of the phenomenon under study. On the other hand, data collection methods are the very instruments that the researcher chooses to gather information from the field. As Seidman (1998) explains, to explore female genital mutilation among Somali community girls aged 11 and 15, a case study like the one on Human rights group in Finland is very much applicable. A case study, like this one, has more information and exhaustively unravels the female genital mutilation phenomenon among the Somali population living in Finland. It is however important to note that a case study only explains a small portion and not the entire population. Therefore, it only sets the path of research, but not generalizing the study. Collection Methods Interviewing: having discusses research strategy; the study now discusses the methods used in data collection. In qualitative research, one can use various methods of data collection. For example, this study opted for interviewing individuals who are victims of female genital mutilation. The researcher also used focus groups comprising of 6 participants who were mainly older women. These people were useful in providing information about the history of female genital mutilation among the Somali community. The advantage of focus group interview lies on its ability to bring out thorough and detailed information even in a short time-span. Additionally, focus group discussion gives the researcher more information about the phenomenon. There is no doubt the researcher got more information about the phenomenon. Since the research study is about female genital mutilation among Somali girls and how the practice affects their education, the researcher employed three focus groups comprising of teachers, parents, and children. Another important data that were useful to this research study on female genital mutilation among Somali girls aged 11 and 15 were the school’s curriculum, children’s performance records, lesson plans, and classroom activities, in other words, the use of archival records. Indubitably, archival records refer more to documents (hard copy, soft copy, photographs, recordings, etc.) rather than but not excluding artifacts and books. Archival records are stored materials (created or received) attesting to an organisation or individual’s functions, tasks, programs and performances (Sharp, 2009). These records shall be taken from school officials – school principal, school registrar, guidance counsellor, medical staff, and teachers. Observation: The phenomenon under investigation is female genital mutilation and how it affects girls aged 11 and 15 educationally. Therefore, the researcher opted for first-hand information on how this phenomenon affects learning and development of girls. Therefore, the researcher used observation as one method of data collection. With the support and use of video camera to validate initial impressions during the direct observation, direct observation was one of the best methods of collecting data. Although the researcher used videotapes to record some observations for further information enrichment, the researcher also was mindful of the confidentiality of the information. Notably, direct observation was paramount as it provided an avenue of counter-checking all collected data from one group and comparing it with the other for accuracy and reliability; it saved the respondents from answering some questions and making the discussion successful, made the discussion easy going, and provided more information about the phenomenon of study Validity In any research study, validity and reliability are two paramount itineraries of research. However, in order to ensure validity of the phenomenon under study, the researcher must measure some variables accurately. Hammersley (1992) suggests that validity is more descriptive of the confidence on the result of the study rather than certainty and it is imperative in research studies. The whole concept of validity in research is wide, and there are about five types of validity. The ones relevant to this research study on female genital mutilation include descriptive validity, interpretive validity, and theoretical validity. To start with, the researcher was cognizant of descriptive validity in order to ensure accuracy and flow of events. The use of interpretive validity is when the researcher is able to understand and make meaning on the responses made by the respondents on female genital mutilation. In other words, the researcher only listened and never helped the respondents to answer any of the questions. In order to ensure theoretical validity, the researcher had to explain to the respondents the phenomenon under study to make them aware about the whole thing, and furthermore the concept of female genital mutilation and its effects on school performance. Many at times, bias arises from poorly organized interviews, and in order to avoid this and give the study its validity, the researcher designed questions that addressed the phenomenon centrally (Morrison, 2000). Reliability In research study, be it qualitative or quantitative study, reliability is paramount. by reliability we mean the researcher matches the events that happened in the field with what the researcher recorded. Accuracy of data is important in giving the study and edge in reliability. Additionally, the researcher should be in a position to understand the collected data easily, in other words, reliability includes exactness, authenticity, specificity, detailed information as given by the respondents.  Thus, in order to ensure reliability, the researcher used the same structure and format of questions to every respondent and discussion groups in order to ensure fidelity and sequence of events (Morrison, 2000). Ethical Considerations Informed Consent and Voluntary Participation Within the Somali community, people do not discuss issues of sexuality openly. In fact, men and women do not discuss sexuality issues. Therefore, this phenomenon is of great concern to any researcher. Sometimes, by holding back, the researcher might not get the real information. Therefore, before embarking this research, the researcher will have to inform and seek consent of the respondents first. There are those who will object to give any information on the subject, and some people, especially girls will feel shy and stigmatized in giving any information regarding female genital mutilation. Voluntary participation is imperative and will not only ensure validity, but also reliability of the research. Voluntary participation is the desire of the individual to freely participate in the research study after understanding its benefits and risks. As commonly practiced, informed consent shall be taken from target participants in this research study through a written form. This will not only protect the researcher from any possible harm but also to implicitly tell the target participants that the research is a serious business; thus inculcating responsibility in their participation.  Confidentiality and Anonymity Since the phenomenon under study is one of the most sensitive and mental-disturbing issue, confidentiality and anonymity are essential. Some respondents will fear giving out information fearing stigmatization or ridicule from other members. That is why the researcher must ensure that information from respondents is secure and is only applicable for research purposes only. The researcher will have to discuss with the respondents on the issue of anonymity and confidentiality. For instance, some pupils might criticize the practice of female genital mutilation; for this, parents many not want to discuss the matter and therefore it is paramount to ask school teachers. One more thing anonymity can be hardly assured in qualitative research given the closeness and familiarity of the researcher with the participant. To compensate this objective limitation of the research paradigm, a high degree of confidentiality has to be achieved. Therefore, the researcher should sign an agreement with the respondents on the issue of confidentiality and anonymity.  Benefits and Risks Conducting a research study until one is able to come up with tangible conclusions is not a walk in the park. There are always risks and benefits involved. For instance, the most obvious advantage or benefit of conducting a research study is that the researcher collects rich information that enriches the mind. Additionally, the research gains more insight and experience in the manner of conducting future researches. In fact, researchers who have completed successful research studies on various phenomena always receive a swathe of credits and recognition in their areas of expertise. On the contrary, a research study can pose some risks especially between the researcher and the respondents. For instance, bias, exploitation, and manipulation are some of the risks involved in research studies. Therefore the researcher should be careful while performing studies. Discussion As part of literature review, it is important to discuss the dangers associated with FGM. According to the World Health Organization (2010), female genital mutilation leaves mental and physical damages to women and girls. In fact, in some instances, some girls have bled to death due to wrong cutting. There is no doubt that the victims experience mammoth pain during cutting, a pain that they will always remember in their entire lives should they happen to survive. Various researchers have associated some psychometric stresses with FGM. Additionally, the use of unsterilized tools can cause serious infections that will otherwise lender the lives of the victims at stake. There are also other effects of female genital mutilation for example, pain during sexual intercourse, severe pain during delivery, bladder complications, and hemorrhage especially if the victim undergoes caesarean sections in delivering a baby. Additional studies indicate that women and girls who have undergone female genital mutilation experience low self-esteem and they do not like identifying with the rest. Conclusion The physical and psychological challenges experienced have serious negative impacts when it comes to education. The social consequences such as stigma and low self-esteem are also injurious to these girls who are trying to shape their careers. There is no doubt that FGM cases serious physical, social, educational, sexual and psychological challenges to girls aged 11-15. Societies and governments should do more to stop the vice and instead focus on ways that improve and empower the girl child. Criminalization of the practice has proved successful and religious sects should stop misleading the public on issues of FGM. References Amnesty international, 2010. Report on Human Rights. New York: Amnesty International. Avis, J., 1994. The Ethnography of Further Education and the Policy orientated Literature: The Vocational Aspects of Education, 46 (3), 241-256. Bell, J., 1999. Doing Your Research Project. New York: Open University Press. Boyle, E., Heger, D., 2002. Female genital cutting, cultural conflicts in the global community. California: The John Hopkins University Press. Cohen, L., Manion, L., Crabtree, F., & William, L., 1992. Doing qualitative research. London: Sage Publications. Dorkenoo, E., 1995. Female genital mutilation, cutting the rose. The practice and its Prevention. London: United Kingdom minority right group. Epstein, D., 1998. Are you a girl or are you a teacher? The ‘Least Adult’ role in Research about Gender and Sexuality in a Primary School. London: Falmer Press. Golafshani, N., 2003. Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative research. Ontario: University of Toronto. Hammersley, M., 1998. Reading Ethnographic Research: A Critical Guide. (2nd ed.). London: Longman. Haralambos, G., & Holborn, D., 2000. Sociology themes and perspectives in culture and identity. London: Herpes Collins. Harmanowiez, N., & Sideman, J., 1998. Qualitative and Quantitative approaches in social Research. New York: Sage. Hitchcock, G., and Hughes, D., 1989. Research and the Teacher: A Qualitative Introduction. London: Rutledge. Molsa, M., 2004. Times have changed an account of the Attitudes and intentions on the Circumcision of Women and Girls amongst Immigrants living at the Helsinki Metropolitan Area [Online]. Available at: http://www.ihmisoikeusliitto.fi Momoh, C., 2005. Female genital mutilation. London: Ed United Kingdom Radcliffe publishing Ltd. Morrison, K., 2000. Research Methods in Education. (5th ed.). London: Routledge. Mustafa, A., 2006. Female Circumcision. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. Polit, F., & Hungler, G., 1997. Data Analysis and Trustworthiness in Doing Research. London: Sage. Seidman, I., 1998. Interviewing as qualitative research. New York: Teachers College Press. Sharp, J., 2009. Success with your Education Research Project Exeter: Learning Matters [Online]. Available at: http//web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGACT770061997 WHO, 2010. Female genital mutilation Fact sheets no 241 [Online]. Available at: http//www.who.int/mediacentre/facesheets/fs241/en Read More